47 While he was still speaking, Judas, one of the Twelve, arrived. With him was a large crowd armed with swords and clubs, sent from the chief priests and the elders of the people. 48 Now the betrayer had arranged a signal with them: "The one I kiss is the man; arrest him." 49 Going at once to Jesus, Judas said, "Greetings, Rabbi!" and kissed him.
50 Jesus replied, "Friend, do what you came for." 51 Then the men stepped forward, seized Jesus and arrested him. With that, one of Jesus' companions reached for his sword, drew it out and struck the servant of the high priest, cutting off his ear.
52 "Put your sword back in its place," Jesus said to him, "for all who draw the sword will die by the sword. 53 Do you think I cannot call on my Father, and he will at once put at my disposal more than twelve legions of angels? 54 But how then would the Scriptures be fulfilled that say it must happen in this way?"
55 At that time Jesus said to the crowd, "Am I leading a rebellion, that you have come out with swords and clubs to capture me? Every day I sat in the temple courts teaching, and you did not arrest me. 56 But this has all taken place that the writings of the prophets might be fulfilled." Then all the disciples deserted him and fled.
One Bad Apple
Matthew 26:47-56
Sermon
by Donald B. Strobe
At Saratoga, on a battlefield that once was covered with British and American blood, there stands a monument, 155 feet high. The monument is there to commemorate that decisive struggle in which the British made their last stand over two centuries ago. Around the base of this monument are four deep niches, and in each niche appears the name of one of the American generals who commanded there. Above the names stand giant bronze figures on horseback. In the first stands Horatio Gates; in the second, Philip John Schuyler; and in the third, Daniel Morgan. But the niche on the fourth side is vacant. The name appears, but the soldier is absent. History buffs might remember that the soldier whose name is listed there was a Brigadier General in the American Army who once commanded West point. His was a distinguished military career up until one decisive moment in his life—the moment in which he decided to betray his country. His name? Benedict Arnold. In the mind of every American the name of Benedict Arnold stands for betrayal.
There is a more famous traitor in history than Benedict Arnold, however. There is the apostle whose very name has become synonymous with treachery. His name is Judas. I have listened with great interest as the present leaders of Eastern European countries denounce the former Communist leaders, and in at least one case, I recall them saying of a previous premier: “He is a Judas!” So, they do know their Bibles! We all know what “Judas” means. It means traitor, betrayer, untrustworthy. Judas was the one bad apple in the barrel of the twelve disciples. I have performed hundreds of baptisms in the last forty years. I have never once been asked to baptize a child with the name Judas.
I. BUT IT IS A GOOD NAME. OR AT LEAST, IT WAS. It was a proud name before this Judas of the New Testament story besmirched it. Judas Maccabeus was a great warrior, a hero of his people, who overthrew the heathen idolatry forced upon the Jews by the Greeks in the second century before Jesus. His victory over Antiochus Epiphanes around 165 B.C. is celebrated in the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah, the Festival of Lights. Jewish parents everywhere took pride in naming their sons after that Judas. No less than five men named Judas can be found in the New Testament, including one of Jesus’ own brothers! (See Matthew 13:55 and Mark 6:3) In Jesus’ day, the name Judas was synonymous with greatness. One can imagine that when he was born his parents thought they were doing him a favor by naming him after a great hero.
In the first three Gospels Judas does not appear on the scene at all until the drama of the last days, but in the fourth Gospel he makes two earlier significant appearances. After the feeding of the five thousand, there was a movement to make Jesus king by force. (John 26:15) When it became clear that Jesus would have nothing to do with that, many of His supporters ceased to follow Him any longer. Jesus asked the Twelve whether they, too, would leave Him. Peter protested his loyalty. It was then that Jesus said, “Did I not choose you, the twelve, and one of you is a devil?” John explains that Jesus was referring to Judas Iscariot who would one day betray Him. (John 6:66-71)
Remember the story of the woman who anointed Jesus with precious oil? In the Fourth Gospel the woman is named as Mary of Bethany (John 12:1-4) and it says that the reaction of Judas was that it was a shocking waste, for the ointment might have been sold and the proceeds given to the poor. The writer goes on to comment that Judas said this not because he really cared anything for the poor, but he was the keeper of the money box, in other words, the treasurer. Those words were written many years after the event, and that may be a slander, based on the fact that the author knew Judas’ ultimate betrayal, but it stands there, nevertheless.
In the closing days of Jesus’ ministry Judas plays a much more significant role. The authorities wanted to get rid of Jesus as a troublemaker, but they needed an insider to help them do the dirty deed, and they found that insider in Judas. In the Garden, Judas betrayed His Master. He knew he would be there, for Jerusalem was crowded and just across the Kidron valley there was a small garden where Jesus would go to rest with His friends, the key given by a friend. And Judas led the authorities there.
II. WHY DID JUDAS DO WHAT HE DID? Judas is the supreme enigma of the New Testament. He is, perhaps, the most universally despised man in human history. Some see him as the Devil incarnate. Others see him only as a poor, misguided man. I would like to suggest this morning that Judas was not a monster, but a man. He was just as human as we ourselves. We who are decent and respectable have a tendency to look upon people who go woefully wrong as being vastly different from us. “Such a thing couldn’t happen to any of us,” we say. “We are made of much finer stuff.” It is hard for us to realize our kinship with such a man as Judas Iscariot. The great British preacher G. Campbell Morgan (1863-1945) said that he did not believe that Judas was a man in the ordinary sense of the word. He believed that Judas was the Devil incarnate, created in history for hell’s work. But I am afraid that such a view raises more questions than it settles. If Judas was created for the express purpose of betraying Christ, then he was not to blame for what he did. God was. And that makes God responsible for sin and evil. That, I cannot accept. I believe that Judas had as many possibilities for greatness as did Peter, James or John. He could have chosen the high road instead of the low one. He chose the low. Why? I don’t know why. Why do we?
I think it was the most dangerous thing God ever did when God gave us free will, freedom of choice, freedom to say either “Yes” or No” to God. With that freedom came the power to break God’s heart. But God chose to create us as persons, not as puppets. Puppets cannot love their creator. Persons can.
“You always hurt the one you love” was a popular love song during my younger years. It seems to be true of most Christians. We proclaim that we love Christ, but much that we say and do hurts Him. When Christians squabble and fight with one another, when they forget His teachings of love toward God and one another, when we give our blessings to those things which Jesus would never support, when we fail to live up to our high calling to be Christians—Christ’s men and women—then we “hurt the one we love,” and betray Christ all over again. Judas was not a monster. He was a person very much like us. As the Irish poet Oscar Wilde said in “The Ballad of Reading Gaol:” “...all men kill the thing they love,/By all let this be heard,/Some do it with a bitter look,/Some do it with a flattering word,/The coward does it with a kiss,/The brave man with a sword!”
But Judas was not always a traitor. Jesus chose him for something better than that. Luke says that he became a traitor. John says that at the Last Supper “the devil entered into him.” “The Devil made me do it” may be one of the greatest cop-outs of human history. It began in the Garden of Eden—the effort to place the blame on somebody or something else. The very fact that he was the treasurer of the twelve indicates that he was deemed trustworthy. I know, a popular view for years has held that Jesus knowingly chose a villain for the specific purpose of betrayal, but that does not seem consistent with the kind of God we meet in Jesus Christ. What kind of God would play with human life as pawns on the chessboard of life? Not the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. Judas had a choice regarding what to do with his life, even as you and I. Yes, I know that Jesus said to the Twelve: “Did I not choose you, the twelve, and one of you is a devil?” That sounds like Judas was a devil from the beginning. But I take it to mean that Judas had the capacity for devilishness. I don’t take it to mean that Judas’ lot in life was predetermined. Later on, Jesus said even stronger words to Peter. “Get behind me, Satan!” He said. (Matthew 16:23) It can be argued that Peter’s sin of denying his Lord not once, but three times was just as bad as Judas’ sin of betraying Him. Jesus’ words do not mean that either Judas or Peter were entirely bad. He meant that evil had a hold on their lives. They were facing in the wrong direction. But Peter turned around; Judas did not.
Why did Judas do what he did? Certainly not for the money. Thirty pieces of silver wasn’t all that much: the price of a slave, according to the Book of Exodus. One clue may be found in the name Iscariot itself. Some scholars suggest that it comes from the word sikarios, the Greek form of the Latin sicarius, a dagger-bearer. In Acts 21:38 the word is used in the plural to describe the followers of a certain Egyptian terrorist. From this we get the word assassin. If this is so, then Judas was a member of the Zealots, those who wished to overthrow the yoke of Rome by violence. It may be that he attached himself to Jesus in hopes that Jesus might take the way of the sword, but when Jesus specifically rejected the way of violence, he became disillusioned. “Who can follow a Messiah like that? Someone who asks us to love even our enemies?” Who, indeed? We all have a problem with that.
Another line of thought suggests that the name Iscariot comes from “ish,” the Hebrew word for “man;” thus, he was the man from Kerioth, a small village in Judea. So Judas came from Judea, and there was fierce regional loyalty. He may have felt like an outsider, for all the rest were Galileans—except Jesus, who was born in Bethlehem of Judea. It may be that Judas felt like an outsider all of his life, never felt really accepted by the other disciples, and that may have contributed to his betrayal. At the Last Supper, Jesus tried His best to include Judas in by giving him the place of honor, but Judas would have none of it.
It may be that Judas really believed that Jesus was the Messiah, only a reluctant one. Some have even suggested that Judas was the greatest believer of them all, for he had faith in Jesus when Jesus had lost faith in Himself. He thought that by putting Jesus in the position of having to do something drastic, he would assert His messiahship and call upon those “legions of angels” to aid Him. In this scenario, He did not expected Jesus to be crucified. He expected Him to take the sword and assert His lordship. And so, as in so many cases, “you pays your money and you takes your choice.” You decide which definition of Judas seems to fit the facts best. But don’t make Judas out to be a monster. He was a man who chose the wrong road. Even as you and I.
III. WHATEVER BECAME OF JUDAS? As Matthew tells the story, Judas went back to the priests and religious authorities and told them that he had sinned against innocent blood, and tried to give them their blood money back. When they refused it, he threw it down and went out and hanged himself. (Matthew 27:3-10) Thus his end was suicide. But there is a different account in Acts 1:16-20. In Matthew the money Judas returned was used to buy a field for the burial of strangers. In Acts Judas buys the field with the money, and apparently while in the field met with a horrible accident in which his body almost literally blew up. Possibly the Acts narrative implies suicide, for it says that Judas fell headlong. (Acts 1:18) It could mean either that he hung himself or threw himself from a precipice.
But what happened to Judas ultimately? That’s what many have wished to know. All sorts of lurid legends have cropped up around this man whom many centuries later the poet Dante was to locate in the lowest depth of the ninth circle of hell. The New Testament itself brings down the curtain on his life in Acts 1:25 where it says that Matthias was chosen to take Judas’ place and that Judas “went to his own place.” What is Judas’ own place is not for us to say. But it is a provocative phrase.
Each of us does go “to his/her own place.” The pious nonsense that “everybody’s going to the same place” is just that: pious nonsense. All of us wouldn’t be comfortable in the same place. Some folks wouldn’t be comfortable in heaven. They would be like a fish out of water. They would be like a stranger in a strange land, unable to understand the customs or speak the language. For love is the language of heaven, and earth is the school wherein we learn to speak it. And death is the great graduation day. Each goes to his/her own place. Jesus said to His friends, “I go to prepare a place for you, that where I am, you may be also.” A lot of folks wouldn’t be comfortable in the presence of Christ. They aren’t comfortable in His presence now. One never sees them in worship or fellowship with others of Christ’s friends now. Whatever makes them think they will be comfortable then? For some folks, heaven would be hell.
We know that Judas left the Last Supper early before the party was over, and went to Jesus’ enemies and led them to the Garden of Gethsemane to find Jesus and arrest Him. After he had done the dirty deed, there would have been no reason for him to stick around, but he seems to have stayed around to see what would happen. There are several versions of what he did in the New Testament, the most plausible of which is that he gave the money back, saying that he had shed innocent blood, and then went out and hanged himself. Interestingly enough, there is a tradition in the early church that his suicide was not based on despair, but on hope. Here is how it went: If God is love, then there would be hope even for a Judas who, for whatever misguided reason, turned Jesus over to the authorities. The earliest form of the Apostles’ Creed says that Jesus “descended into hell,” and early traditions say that is precisely what Jesus did during the days between Good Friday and Easter Sunday. And Jesus went there for a specific purpose, hints a couple of New Testament books: to preach to the souls in captivity. (Cf. Ephesians 4:8 and I Peter 3:19-20) One such soul would undoubtedly have been Judas. Reflecting on this ancient tradition, Frederick Buechner says in his inimitable fashion: “Once again they met in the shadows, the two old friends, both of them a little worse for wear after all that had happened, only this time it was Jesus who was the one to give the kiss, and this time it wasn’t the kiss of death which was given.” (PECULIAR TREASURES, New York: Harper & Row, Inc., 1979, p. 83) That sounds to me like just the sort of thing Jesus would do. His is truly the love that will never let us go. Any of us. Ever.
There is another ancient legend about Judgment Day. In heaven on this final day, everyone is joyfully celebrating, singing, dancing, and embracing their loved ones. Everyone is jubilant except Jesus, who is stranding sadly at the gates to heaven, looking down and beyond. He is asked why He is not joining in the festivities all around Him. Jesus answers simply, “I am waiting for Judas.” It is just a legend, but it contains a great truth. Perhaps Jesus is still waiting for Judas. Is He still waiting for you?
Dynamic Preaching, Collected Words, by Donald B. Strobe
Judas and an armed crowd sent from the Jewish leaders approach Jesus in Gethsemane after his time of prayer. Judas betrays him with a kiss, the typical greeting shared by genuine friends. Jesus replies, “Friend, do what you came for” (26:50), providing another indication that Jesus is in control of this whole sequence of events. When Peter cuts off the ear of the high priest’s servant (John 18:10), Jesus tells him to put away his sword because those who sow violence tend to reap violence (26:52). He then reminds Peter that he could ask his Father to send seventy-two thousand angels to deal with this armed mob, but that would prevent the Scriptures from being fulfilled (26:53–54). God’s way is the way of the cross. Although he taught openly in the temple, the leaders hesitate to arrest him …
The Baker Bible Handbook by , Baker Publishing Group, 2016
47 While he was still speaking, Judas, one of the Twelve, arrived. With him was a large crowd armed with swords and clubs, sent from the chief priests and the elders of the people. 48 Now the betrayer had arranged a signal with them: "The one I kiss is the man; arrest him." 49 Going at once to Jesus, Judas said, "Greetings, Rabbi!" and kissed him.
50 Jesus replied, "Friend, do what you came for." 51 Then the men stepped forward, seized Jesus and arrested him. With that, one of Jesus' companions reached for his sword, drew it out and struck the servant of the high priest, cutting off his ear.
52 "Put your sword back in its place," Jesus said to him, "for all who draw the sword will die by the sword. 53 Do you think I cannot call on my Father, and he will at once put at my disposal more than twelve legions of angels? 54 But how then would the Scriptures be fulfilled that say it must happen in this way?"
55 At that time Jesus said to the crowd, "Am I leading a rebellion, that you have come out with swords and clubs to capture me? Every day I sat in the temple courts teaching, and you did not arrest me. 56 But this has all taken place that the writings of the prophets might be fulfilled." Then all the disciples deserted him and fled.
Jesus and his disciples move to a nearby olive grove called Gethsemane (26:36–46), where Jesus prays repeatedly that the necessity of his impending death be removed (26:39, 42, 44; for cup language, see 20:22), though he submits to his Father’s will (for obedience to God’s will in Matthew, see 7:21; 12:48–50). The disciples, whom Jesus asks to keep watch as he prays, fall asleep at each turn. Although privy to Jesus’s predictions and teaching about his imminent death, they continue to show that they do not understand the full import of his words. They do nothing to prepare for his death (26:6–13); they boldly protest Jesus’s prediction about their falling away (26:31–35); and yet they succumb to sleep when they should be watching for Jesus’s enemies and praying that they will resist temptation (26:38, 41). Jesus announces the arrival of his betrayer before they show any awareness of the danger (26:46).
Matthew’s account of Jesus’s arrest (26:47–56) begins with a kiss from Judas (26:49), who has brought an armed crowd gathered by the chief priests and Jewish elders (cf. 26:3), which includes their servants, who attempt to arrest Jesus (26:50–51). When one of Jesus’s disciples strikes the high priest’s servant, Jesus rebukes his violent response. Jesus, according to Matthew, is not the leader of a human rebellion (Greek lēstēs; 26:55) against Rome. Though he could call on angels to rescue him (26:53; cf. 4:6, 11), he will submit to the Father’s will for his mission, in order that the Scriptures might be fulfilled (26:54, 56). Since Matthew does not cite a particular scriptural text but refers to “Scriptures” (plural; 26:54) and “the writings of the prophets” (26:56), these statements likely indicate Jesus’s fulfillment of the Old Testament Scriptures generally. In contrast to Jesus’s command of the situation, his disciples flee the scene, deserting him as predicted (26:31).
The Baker Illustrated Bible Commentary by Gary M. Burge, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Big Idea: Although Jesus predicts and witnesses the disciples’ desertion and prays for God to change his fate, he as the Messiah, the Son of God, proves himself faithful to God’s will even to the point of suffering and death.
Understanding the Text
Matthew’s passion story continues with Jesus’ prediction of the disciples’ desertion and Peter’s denial (26:31–35), Jesus’ time of prayer in Gethsemane and arrest there (26:36–56), and Jesus’ trial before the Sanhedrin (26:57–68) followed by Peter’s denial (26:69–75). Matthew’s thematic emphases include the stumbling of the disciples (“fall away” [26:31, 33]), prophetic fulfillment (26:31, 54–56), and Jesus’ commitment to doing God’s will even to the point of death (26:39). The antagonism of the Jerusalem leaders toward Jesus, which has been palpable since his arrival in the city (21:23–27, 45–46; 22:15–40; 26:3–4), culminates in Jesus’ trial before the Sanhedrin. Jesus’ citation of Daniel 7:13–14 (see 26:64; see also 24:30–31) and the implicit claim that he is the Son of Man result in the charge of blasphemy and propel the story to the next political level, a trial before Pilate (27:1–2, 11–26).
Interpretive Insights
26:31 This very night you will fall away on account of me. Matthew draws on the thematic skandalizo to describe the disciples’ falling away or stumbling over Jesus. The Pharisees (15:12) and Jesus’ hometown (13:57) have stumbled over Jesus and his teachings. Yet Jesus has tried to avoid causing stumbling (17:27) and has pronounced a blessing over those who do not stumble over his messianic identity (11:6). It is ironic that Jesus’ closest followers will stumble over him in his darkest hour.
I will strike the shepherd. Jesus cites Zechariah 13:7 to describe the disciples’ desertion, a text that draws on the common image of shepherd for Israel’s leaders and offers a final vision of Israel restored after Yahweh purifies them (13:1, 9).
26:32 after I have risen, I will go ahead of you into Galilee. Jesus’ prediction of the disciples’ desertion is followed by a hint of future restoration. His saying about meeting his disciples in Galilee (see also 28:7, 10) points ahead to Matthew’s final commissioning scene in Galilee (28:16–20).
26:36 to a place called Gethsemane. Gethsemane was an olive orchard located on the Mount of Olives. This will be the scene of both Jesus’ fervent prayer and his arrest.
26:38 keep watch with me. The admonition for Jesus’ followers to be watchful (gregoreo) has been thematic in the Eschatological Discourse (24:42–43; 25:13) and now is at the center of Jesus’ exhortation to Peter, James, and John, his closest friends, as he goes off alone to pray (also 26:40–41).
26:39 may this cup be taken from me. Yet not as I will, but as you will. The image of a “cup” in the Old Testament often refers to God’s judgment (e.g., Jer. 25:15; 49:12; see also Matt. 20:22). Jesus desires that he not experience his coming trial, crucifixion, and death, but as he prays, he puts his future in God’s hands.
26:45 the Son of Man is delivered into the hands of sinners. This prediction of what will happen at Jesus’ arrest echoes his earlier words about his coming passion at 17:22: “The Son of Man is going to be delivered into the hands of men.”
26:47 a large crowd ... sent from the chief priests and the elders. As the arrest scene begins, Judas arrives in Gethsemane along with a large crowd sent by the Jewish leaders. Once they deliver Jesus to the high priest and the Sanhedrin, the crowd reappears during Jesus’ trial before Pilate (27:17).
26:48 The one I kiss is the man; arrest him. The signal that Judas has arranged is a kiss. This detail indicates either that Jesus is not readily recognizable to those coming to arrest him, or, more likely, that the darkness of night made it difficult to distinguish him from the many other visitors to Jerusalem who might be spending the night in the olive grove. For the motif of secrecy across chapter26, see 26:16.
26:53 twelve legions of angels. Matthew ties the scene in Gethsemane to the temptation narrative (4:1–12) by means of an echo of Psalm 91: angels are at Jesus’ disposal to rescue him. Ironically, the devil used Psalm 91:11–12 (4:6) in order to tempt Jesus. Jesus did not succumb to that temptation, nor does he turn his focus away from his God-given mission at his arrest.
26:54 how then would the Scriptures be fulfilled...? Jesus indicates that the Scriptures will be fulfilled by his faithful completion of his mission. Here Matthew, rather than characteristically citing particular Old Testament texts, emphasizes in the Passion Narrative how Jesus fulfills the Scriptures broadly (also 26:56).
26:56 Then all the disciples deserted him and fled. For the Twelve, who have been called to follow Jesus and have been with him for most of the story (note 26:71: “with Jesus”), their desertion signals a fundamental act of disloyalty and abdication of their mission.
26:57 Caiaphas the high priest. See comments on 26:3.
26:59 the whole Sanhedrin. The ruling Jewish council in Jerusalem, the Sanhedrin, was led by the high priest and consisted of prominent priests, scribes, and influential citizens who heard cases, made decisions and judgments, and were the central Jewish liaison with Rome.1
looking for false evidence against Jesus. Given that the search for false evidence surfaces nothing, the charges eventually lodged will be based on something that Jesus has said, though misconstrued (see comments on 26:61).
26:61 I am able to destroy the temple of God and rebuild it in three days. Matthew includes no such statement by Jesus in his Gospel, but John’s Gospel records Jesus’ enigmatic riddle: “Destroy this temple, and I will raise it again in three days” (2:19). This Jesus tradition likely provides the basis of the accusation from these two witnesses. And although they get the details wrong (e.g., in John’s text Jesus is not the agent of the temple’s destruction, and he speaks figuratively), the high priest accepts their testimony, probably because it comes from the mouths of “two or three witnesses” (see Deut. 19:15).
26:63 But Jesus remained silent. Jesus chooses to remain silent rather than defend himself (again at 27:14). Those prone to hear allusions to Isaiah 53 elsewhere in Matthew (20:28; 26:28) also suggest an echo of Isaiah 53:7 here: “He [the servant] was oppressed and afflicted, yet he did not open his mouth.”
I charge you under oath. When Caiaphas binds him by an oath, Jesus answers the question about his identity. In doing so, Jesus does not contravene his teaching about avoiding oaths (5:34), since that teaching addressed voluntary oaths and not oaths placed on one person by another.
Tell us if you are the Messiah, the Son of God. The titles “Messiah” and “Son of God” refer to Jesus’ kingly identity. While modern readers are prone to hear “Son of God” as a divine title, in first-century Judaism it is a messianic one. Drawing from 2Samuel 7:14 and Psalm 2, Jewish use of “son of God” could refer to Israel’s king and so certainly the Messiah (see 2Esd. 7:28–29). This seems to underlie Matthew’s use of the title here and elsewhere (see 14:33; 16:16). For Matthew’s Israel Christology, which may be relevant here, see comments on 4:3, 6.
26:64 You have said so. Jesus answers the high priest, but in somewhat cryptic fashion (see also 26:25; cf. 27:11). As John Nolland notes, “Though formally noncommittal, it is to be taken as an obliquely expressed affirmative [answer].”2
From now on you will see the Son of Man ... coming on the clouds of heaven. Jesus clearly alludes to Daniel 7:13–14 in his response to Caiaphas, a text also evoked at 10:23; 16:28; 24:30. Psalm 110:1 is also echoed in the reference to being seated at God’s right hand. Daniel 7:13–14 pictures a “son of man” figure entering the heavenly court and being vindicated and glorified. So Jesus is implicitly claiming and asserting his coming vindication by God in spite of his present trial and impending death. His vindication occurs most clearly at his resurrection but also upon the vindication of his predictions about the temple’s destruction (see 24:30).
26:65 He has spoken blasphemy! Blasphemy is a broad enough charge, at least in the first century, to characterize Jesus’ response.3Through reference to Daniel 7, Jesus has claimed implicitly a unique relationship with God and his (future) universal authority. He has also spoken against God’s temple and God’s leaders (see Exod. 22:28).4
26:66 He is worthy of death. According to the Torah, the punishment for blasphemy is death (Lev. 24:13–15).
26:69 Now Peter was sitting out in the courtyard. The scene of Peter’s denial (introduced at 26:58) involves three intensifying claims by Peter that he does not know Jesus.
26:72 He denied it again, with an oath. Peter not only denies Jesus again; he does so by rashly taking an oath, something that Jesus has prohibited his followers from doing (5:34).
26:73 your accent gives you away. This statement highlights the distinction, linguistic and social, that existed between Jews from Judea and Jerusalem and Jews from Galilee. Earlier (21:10–11), Matthew has distinguished between the Jerusalem crowds and those from Galilee (see comments on 4:12).
Theological Insights: Jesus as Faithful Son
Jesus’ faithfulness to God’s plan is emphasized across the arc of Matthew’s story, especially here in Gethsemane. In spite of temptation to go another (easier) path, Jesus remains God’s faithful son in contrast to Israel’s historical failings as God’s son (Hosea 11:1; Matt. 2:15). Each of the Gospels tells this story of Jesus’ faithfulness to God’s plan (e.g., Mark 14:36; Luke 9:51; John 12:27–28). And particularly if Paul speaks of God’s righteousness being displayed through Jesus’ faithfulness in Romans 3:22 (also Gal. 2:16; Phil. 3:9), then Paul calls people to trust in the faithful work of Christ demonstrated and enacted in his suffering and death.5The author of the Epistle to the Hebrews gives significant space to the theme of Jesus’ faithfulness: “Christ is faithful as the Son over God’s house” (3:6 [cf. 3:2]). Although he was “tempted in every way, just as we are ... he did not sin” (4:15). Instead, “he learned obedience from what he suffered” (5:8 [cf. 2:10]). Because of his faithfulness, he has brought salvation (5:9) and provides help for believers when tempted (2:18).
Teaching the Text
1. Jesus as obedient son, facing the greatest of all temptations, remains faithful to his mission. Matthew has portrayed Jesus as faithful and obedient to his Father and his mission from the start. He is baptized by John in solidarity with the people of Israel (3:15–17 [“to fulfill all righteousness”]) and, as faithful representative of Israel, resists all temptations to turn aside from God’s will for him (4:1–12). Although tempted to take a different path (16:22–23), he stays the course to the cross. Here in Gethsemane we see the most heart-wrenching of moments in Jesus’ journey to the culmination of his mission to “give his life as a ransom for many” (20:28). Yet even with his death looming before him, Jesus remains faithful and obedient.
In preaching and teaching this passage, we can follow our inclination to interpret Jesus’ faithfulness as a model for our own, since Matthew has authorized this analogy in his focus on Jesus as representative Israel: he is the faithful Israelite par excellence (see “Matthew’s Narrative Christology” in the introduction). It can help those we minister to and with to know of Jesus’ struggle to follow an easier path and of his own desire to avoid the cross (to do what he wills [26:39]). To overcome temptation as Jesus did is not about some superhuman ability to avoid feeling deep ambivalence toward the sacrifice involved in following God’s path for our lives; rather, it is about placing ourselves in the hands of the covenant God, who cares deeply for us as we say yes to our God-given mission.
2. Matthew portrays the commitment to “being with” Jesus as fundamental to discipleship. In the scene of Jesus’ desertion by his disciples we get a glimpse of how important it is for followers of Jesus to remain loyal to him. For the Twelve, who have been present with Jesus for much of Matthew’s narrative and whose call to follow has been about presence (4:18–22), to desert Jesus now at his most vulnerable and difficult hour is an abdication of their most important role. In church contexts where we often highlight the importance of activity (“doing ministry” and “serving the church”), it may be helpful in preaching and teaching to encourage Christians to think of their fundamental identity as disciples having to do with “being with Jesus.” Presence precedes activism, and relationship precedes service. Jesus’ words provide the proper order when he calls four fishermen to a new vocation: “Come, follow me, and I will send you out to fish for people” (4:19).
Illustrating the Text
Jesus as obedient son, facing the greatest of all temptations, remains faithful to his mission.
Science: In spite of great temptation to do so, Jesus does not choose the “path of least resistance.” In physics, this phrase describes the way in which an object is most likely to move. For example, water in a river will flow downhill, pulled by gravity, moving around rocks and obstacles in its path. This phrase is also an idiom describing the way people often take the easier path in life, avoiding conflict and obstacles. Unique levels of commitment are needed to choose a path that is more difficult. In the Gethsemane narrative we get a glimpse of the difficulty of the path that Jesus takes.
Scripture: In Joshua 4 Israel has just passed over the Jordan River and into the promised land. Their time of desert journeying is over, but many challenges lie ahead. In this moment of transition God has Israel stop and set up twelve memorial stones. These stones provided Israel with a tangible and long-lasting reminder of God’s covenant faithfulness. These stones were meant to keep Israel from the temptation of idolatry. As we seek to endure moments of temptation, we might mark moments of God’s salvation and loyalty for us with “memorial stones” of our own.
This illustration might lead to application. You might encourage people to try one of the following ways of setting up their own memorial stones:
Create a memorial box: Either individually or as a family, record memories of God’s faithfulness on slips of paper and keep them in a box. Each family member might add a memory each year, possibly as part of a Thanksgiving Day tradition.
Set aside a memory shelf: Dedicate a shelf in your home to objects chosen as symbols of God’s faithfulness. Perhaps you can snap a photograph of a place or thing that will help you remember a moment when God was quite evidently at work.
Matthew portrays the commitment to “being with” Jesus as fundamental to discipleship.
Quote: To live in relationship with the living God in a way that focuses on being prior to doing, it can be helpful to return to the truth that being with Jesus begins and ends with his initiating presence with us. We depend on his presence (not vice versa).
Dependence assumes that God is already at work, so a centering question that emerges is: Where is God in this? In whatever situations, questions, or experiences we encounter, we can ask how God is already present, involved, and directing us precisely in the middle of these life experiences. This question—a foundational one in the practice of spiritual direction—is quite different from ... the commonplace refrain: If you’re not feeling close to God, guess who moved?6
Teaching the Text by Jeannine K. Brown, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Direct Matches
Fasting, often linked with prayer, was one avenue of appeal to God in the face of crises, both national and personal. Moses ascended to Mount Sinai and was with God forty days and nights without eating bread or drinking water, both before and after the Israelites’ sin with the golden calf (Exod. 34:28; Deut. 9:818). David fasted when his son was dying (2Sam. 12:15–23). Esther called all the Jews of Susa to fast for three days before she ventured before the king (Esther 4:15–17). Joel called the people to repentance and fasting as the land was devastated by a locust plague (Joel 1:13–14; 2:12). Forty days of fasting, an echo of Moses’ experience, prepared Jesus to face the devil’s temptations (Matt. 4:1–11 pars.).
The OT prophets criticized Israelites who presumed that their religious obligations were met simply by fasting (Isa. 58:1–10; Zech. 7:1–5). When asked why his disciples did not fast and pray, Jesus indicated that sometimes fasting is inappropriate (Matt. 9:14–17 pars.). Luke recorded an addition to Jesus’ statement about new wine in old wineskins: “No one after drinking old wine wants the new, for they say, ‘The old is better’” (Luke 5:39), perhaps suggesting that the accumulation of fasting practices was “new wine” and they ought simply to observe the Day of Atonement.
People in the Bible were family-centered and staunchly loyal to their kin. Families formed the foundation of society. The extended family was the source of people’s status in the community and provided the primary economic, educational, religious, and social interactions.
Marriage and divorce. Marriage in the ancient Near East was a contractual arrangement between two families, arranged by the bride’s father or a male representative. The bride’s family was paid a dowry, a “bride’s price.” Paying a dowry was not only an economic transaction but also an expression of family honor. Only the rich could afford multiple dowries. Thus, polygamy was minimal. The wedding itself was celebrated with a feast provided by the father of the groom.
The primary purpose for marriage in the ancient Near East was to produce a male heir to ensure care for the couple in their old age. The concept of inheritance was a key part of the marriage customs, especially with regard to passing along possessions and property.
Marriage among Jews in the NT era still tended to be endogamous; that is, Jews sought to marry close kin without committing incest violations (Lev. 18:617). A Jewish male certainly was expected to marry a Jew. Exogamy, marrying outside the remote kinship group, and certainly outside the ethnos, was understood as shaming God’s holiness. Thus, a Jew marrying a Gentile woman was not an option. The Romans did practice exogamy. For them, marrying outside one’s kinship group (not ethnos) was based predominantly on creating strategic alliances between families.
Greek and Roman law allowed both men and women to initiate divorce. In Jewish marriages, only the husband could initiate divorce proceedings. If a husband divorced his wife, he had to release her and repay the dowry. Divorce was common in cases of infertility (in particular if the woman had not provided male offspring). Ben Sira comments that barrenness in a woman is a cause of anxiety to the father (Sir. 42:9–10). Another reason for divorce was adultery (Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18). Jesus, though, taught a more restrictive use of divorce than the OT (Mark 10:1–12).
Children and parenting. Childbearing was considered representative of God’s blessing on a woman and her entire family, in particular her husband. In contrast to this blessing, barrenness brought shame on women, their families, and specifically their husbands.
Children were of low social status in society. Infant mortality was high. An estimated 60percent of the children in the first-century Mediterranean society were dead by the age of sixteen.
Ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean societies exhibited a parenting style based on their view of human nature as a mixture of good and evil tendencies. Parents relied on physical punishment to prevent evil tendencies from developing into evil deeds (Prov. 29:15). The main concern of parents was to socialize the children into family loyalty. Lack of such loyalty was punished (Lev. 20:9). At a very early stage children were taught to accept the total authority of the father. The rearing of girls was entirely the responsibility of the women. Girls were taught domestic roles and duties as soon as possible so that they could help with household tasks.
Family identity was used as a metaphor in ancient Israel to speak of fidelity, responsibility, judgment, and reconciliation. In the OT, the people of Israel often are described as children of God. In their overall relationship to God, the people of Israel are referred to in familial terms—sons and daughters, spouse, and firstborn (Exod. 4:22). God is addressed as the father of the people (Isa. 63:16; 64:8) and referred to as their mother (Isa. 49:14–17).
The church as the family of God. Throughout his ministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a call to loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26), a call to fictive kinship, the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50; Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock I will build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call to community. Entrance into the community was granted through adopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and the initiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–63; John 1:12; 3:16; 10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9). Jesus’ presence as the head of the community was eventually replaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18). Through the Spirit, Jesus’ ministry continues in the community of his followers, God’s family—the church. See also Adoption.
A priest is a minister of sacred things who represents God to the people and the people to God. The OT identifies priests of Yahweh and priests of other gods and idols. The only pagan priest that the NT mentions is the priest of Zeus from Lystra who wanted to offer sacrifices to Paul and Barnabas, whom the crowd mistook for deities (Acts 14:13). All other NT references build upon OT teaching about priests of Yahweh.
Early biblical history records clan heads offering sacrifices for their families (Gen. 12:78; 13:18; 22; 31:54; 46:1). Although the patriarchs performed these duties, they are never called “priests”; the only priests mentioned from this time are foreigners such as Melchizedek, the Egyptian priest of On, and Moses’ father-in-law Jethro (Gen. 14:18; 41:45, 50; 46:20; Exod. 3:1; 18:1). Whereas all Israelites could be called “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exod. 19:6), a distinctive priesthood came to light when God instructed Moses to prepare special priestly clothes for Aaron and his sons (Exod. 28). The high priest was distinguished from the others by more magnificent clothes. By failing to wear their special clothes while serving at the tabernacle, the priests would incur guilt and die (Exod. 28:43).
In NT times many priests exerted religious and civil power as leaders of the Sadducees and the Essenes. Some priests, such as Zechariah, were portrayed as righteous men (Luke 1:5–6). Others were said to have come to faith in Jesus (Acts 6:7). Supporting the role assigned by Moses, Jesus regularly required those whom he healed to show themselves to the priest. Even so, most Gospel references to priests underscore their opposition to Jesus’ ministry and the role they played in his trial and crucifixion. This opposition continued after the resurrection, as priests challenged the witness of the apostles. When Peter and John proclaimed that a crippled beggar had been healed by Jesus’ power, the priests and others jailed, interrogated, and forbade them from speaking in Jesus’ name (Acts 4:1–20). The Sanhedrin questioned Stephen about charges of blasphemy and speaking against the temple and the Mosaic law (6:11–7:1). Saul (Paul) received a letter of authority from the high priest to arrest Christians (9:1–2). Later, as a follower of Jesus, he stood trial before Ananias, who charged him before Felix (24:1), and a wider group of chief priests who charged him before Festus (25:1–3).
Hebrews uniquely highlights how the priesthood of Jesus surpassed the OT priesthood. The OT priests presented sin offerings, but their sacrifices needed to be repeated regularly, whereas Jesus, the faithful and merciful high priest, offered a sacrifice that never needed repeating and was available to everyone at all times. Jesus also surpassed the Aaronic priests because they first needed to offer sacrifices for their own sins, but he never sinned. Furthermore, since he offered the perfect sacrifice of himself, all people, not just priests, could draw near to God.
The NT develops the idea of a priesthood of all believers by taking the concept that Israel would be a kingdom of priests and transferring it to the church (1Pet. 2:4–9; cf. Exod. 19:6). Reflecting the general biblical view of priesthood, believers offer spiritual sacrifices to God, represent God to the world by revealing his works of salvation, and represent the world to God through prayer. In the NT, the priesthood of believers is corporate; a priestly office in the church is never expressly mentioned.
(1)One of the apostles identified as “Judas son of James” (Luke 6:16; Acts 1:13) and “Judas (not Judas Iscariot)” (John 14:22), probably the same person as Thaddaeus (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18). (2)A leading Jerusalem believer and prophet, “Judas called Barsabbas” (i.e., “son of the Sabbath” or “son of Sabbas”; possibly a relative of “Joseph called Barsabbas” in Acts 1:23). Along with Silas, he was sent with Paul and Bar-nabas to add verbal testimony to the letter to the Gentile Christians from the apostles and elders after the Jerusalem council (Acts 15:22, 27, 32). (3)One of the twelve disciples chosen by Jesus, he betrayed Jesus. See Judas Iscariot.
In the OT there is no language or understanding comparable to modern ways of talking about prayer as conversational or dialogical. Prayer does not involve mutuality. Prayer is something that humans offer to God, and the situation is never reversed; God does not pray to humans. Understanding this preserves the proper distinction between the sovereign God and the praying subject. Therefore, prayers in the OT are reverential. Some OT prayers have extended introductions, such as that found in Neh. 1:5, that seem to pile up names for God. These should be seen as instances not of stiltedness or ostentation, but rather as setting up a kind of “buffer zone” in recognition of the distance between the Creator and the creature. In the NT, compare the same phenomenon in Eph. 1:17.
A presupposition of prayer in the OT is that God hears prayer and may indeed answer and effect the change being requested. Prayer is not primarily about changing the psychological state or the heart of the one praying, but rather about God changing the circ*mstances of the one praying.
The depiction of prayer in the NT is largely consistent with that of the OT, but there are important developments.
Jesus tells his disciples to address God as “Father” (Matt. 6:9; cf. Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). Prayer to God is now to be made in the name of Jesus (Matt. 18:1920; John 14:13; 15:16; 16:23–26).
Prayer can also be made to Jesus (John 14:14), and such devotion to him in the early church is evidence of his being regarded as deity. Unlike anything prior in the OT, Jesus tells his followers to pray for their enemies (Matt. 5:44). Jesus and his followers serve as examples (Luke 23:34; Acts 7:60).
The Holy Spirit plays a vital role in prayers. It is by him that we are able to call out, “Abba, Father” (Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). The Spirit himself intercedes for us (Rom. 8:26). Our praying is to be done in the Spirit (Eph. 6:18; Jude 20; possibly 1Cor. 14:15).
Jesus encourages fervent and even continual or repeated prayer (Luke 18:1–8), but not showy or repetitive prayer (Matt. 6:5–8).
Jesus becomes the model of prayer. He prays before important decisions (Luke 6:12–13) and in connection with significant crisis points (Matt. 14:23; 26:36–44; Luke 3:21; 9:29; John 12:27). He offers prayers that are not answered (Luke 22:41–44) and prayers that are (Heb. 5:7). Even as he tells his disciples to always pray and not give up (Luke 18:1 [which is also the meaning of the sometimes overly literalized “pray without ceasing” in 1Thess. 5:17 NRSV]), so he himself wrestles in prayer (Luke 22:41–44; Heb. 5:7). He has prayed for his disciples (John 17; Luke 22:32), and even now, in heaven, he still intercedes for us (Heb. 7:25). Indeed, our intercession before God’s throne is valid because his is (Heb. 4:14–16).
A prophet is a messenger of God, a person to whom God entrusts his message to an individual or to a nation. Indeed, the last book in the OT is named “Malachi,” which means “my messenger.” Isaiah heard God ask, “Whom shall I send?” and he cried out, “Send me!” (Isa. 6:8). A good template for understanding the phenomenon is Moses and Aaron. Moses was to tell Aaron what to say, and Aaron would say it. “Then the Lord said to Moses, ‘See, I have made you like God to Pharaoh, and your brother Aaron will be your prophet’” (Exod. 7:1).
In the NT period there were a number of prophets. John the Baptist could point to Jesus and proclaim him to be the Lamb of God, who takes away the sins of the world (John 1:29). Agabus the prophet predicted a famine and, later, Paul’s arrest (Acts 11:28; 21:1011).
Paul lists “gifts of the Spirit” (1Cor. 12:4–11), including prophecy and various phenomena reminiscent of the OT prophets’ ecstatic state. Paul warns the Corinthians not to overdo this sort of thing and so to be mature (1Cor. 14:19–20). Near the end of his life, in one of his last letters, he speaks of prophecy as normative in the church, particularly in establishing an authoritative body of elders to rule and especially to preach the gospel (1Tim. 1:18; 4:14). Peter draws a connection between the ministry of the OT prophets and the proclamation of the gospel of Jesus Christ (1Pet. 1:10–12). Evangelism seems to be the normative mode for prophecy today: forthtelling by calling people to turn from their sins to Jesus, and foretelling by speaking of his return and the final judgment.
Thus, all Christians hold the office of prophet, even if they never participate in the ecstatic state experienced by the Corinthians. The greatness of a prophet is in how clearly the prophet points to Jesus. John the Baptist was the greatest of the OT prophets by that measure, but any Christian on this side of the cross and resurrection can proclaim the gospel even more clearly. Thus, the prophetic ministry of any Christian is greater than John’s (Matt. 11:11).
Five prophetesses are mentioned in the OT: Miriam (Exod. 15:20), Deborah (Judg. 4–5), Huldah (2Kings 22:14–20; 2Chron. 34:22–28), Isaiah’s wife (Isa. 8:3), and Noadiah (Neh. 6:14).
Similarly in the NT, Peter recognizes God’s promise through Joel being fulfilled in the gift of prophetic speech to women as well as men at Pentecost (Acts 2:18); and Paul, acknowledging that women prophesy publicly in the congregation, is concerned only with the manner of their doing so (1Cor. 11:5). The prophetess Anna proclaims the baby Jesus as the Messiah (Luke 2:36–38), Luke reports that the four unmarried daughters of Philip the evangelist also prophesy (Acts 21:8–9). The only false prophetess in the NT is the apocalyptic figure of Jezebel in Rev. 2:20.
A title applied to teachers and others in respected positions, literally meaning “my master.” By the NT era, the term was used in a more specific sense to refer to teachers of the Mosaic law.
In the NT, the title occurs only in the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and John, and it is most commonly used to address Jesus (Mark 9:5; 11:21; 14:45; Matt. 26:25, 49). The title is used more widely in John’s Gospel by individuals such as Nathanael and Nicodemus, as well as the group of disciples (John 1:38, 49; 3:2; 4:31; 6:25; 9:2; 11:8). The title conveys the respect of pupil for master and indicates the nature of the relationship that Jesus had with his followers.
Others were also called “Rabbi,” including John the Baptist and some of the Pharisees (John 3:26; Matt. 23:7). Although the Pharisees considered the title an honor, Jesus instructed his disciples not to allow themselves to be addressed as “Rabbi” and to acknowledge only one teacher, Christ (Matt. 23:8, 10).
There are numerous relationships in the OT that could be characterized as following a servant-master model. These included service to the monarchy (2Sam. 9:2), within households (Gen. 16:8), in the temple (1Sam. 2:15), or to God himself (Judg. 2:8). We also see extensive slavery laws in passages such as Exod. 21:111; Lev. 25:39–55; Deut. 15:12–18. The slavery laws were concerned with the proper treatment of Hebrew slaves and included guidelines for their eventual release and freedom. For example, Hebrew slaves who had sold themselves to others were to serve for a period of six years. On the seventh year, known also as the Sabbath Year, they were to be released. Once released, they were not to be sent away empty-handed, but rather were to be supported from the owner’s “threshing floor” and “winepress.” Slaves also had certain rights that gave them special privileges and protection from their masters. Captured slaves, for example, were allowed rest on the Sabbath (Exod. 20:10) and during special holidays (Deut. 16:11, 14). They could also be freed if their master permanently hurt or crippled them (Exod. 21:26–27). Also, severe punishment was imposed on a person who beat a slave to death (Exod. 21:20–21).
Slavery was very common in the first century AD, and there were many different kinds of slaves. For example, slaves might live in an extended household (oikos) in which they were born, or they might choose to sell themselves into this situation (1Pet. 2:18–25). Although slavery was a significant part of society in the first century AD, we never see Jesus or the apostles encourage slavery. Instead, both Paul and Peter encouraged godly character and obedience for slaves within this system (Eph. 6:5–8; Col. 3:22–25; 1Tim. 6:1–2; Philemon; 1Pet. 2:18–21). Likewise, masters were encouraged to be kind and fair to their slaves (Eph. 6:9; Col. 4:1). Later in the NT, slave trading was condemned by the apostle Paul as contrary to “sound doctrine” and “the gospel concerning the glory of the blessed God” (1Tim. 1:10–11).
Jesus embodied the idea of a servant in word and deed. He fulfilled the role of the “Servant of the Lord,” the Suffering Servant predicted by the prophet Isaiah (Isa. 42:1–4; 50:4–9; 52:13–53:12). He also took on the role of a servant in the Gospels, identifying himself as the Son of Man who came to serve (Mark 10:45) and washing the disciples’ feet (John 13:4–5). Paul says that in the incarnation Jesus took on “the very nature of a servant” (Phil. 2:7).
The special relationship between Jesus and his followers is captured in the servant-master language of the NT Epistles, especially in Paul’s letters (Rom. 1:1; Phil. 1:1; Titus 1:1). This language focuses not so much on the societal status of these servants as on the allegiance and honor owed to Christ Jesus.
Signs are visible, typically being an object, a mark, an event, or a custom. In addition, signs are symbolic, pointing to things not seen. Signs often reveal or share some quality with the unseen reality to which they point, and so they are a token of that reality. In the Bible, signs typically are caused or instituted by God, and in many cases they are miraculous. However, in a few cases signs are set forth as the work of other gods (as in Deut. 13:12) or as being instituted by merely human design (as in Num. 2:2). In summary, a sign may be defined as something seen that points to something unseen, and that is instituted or created to do so by someone’s intention.
Several examples support this definition. Keeping the Sabbath is a sign of God’s rest after creating the world (Exod. 31:15); the Sabbath rest itself imitates God’s rest. Circumcision is a sign of God’s promise to both Abraham and his descendants; circumcision is also a physical mark that is related to human fertility (Gen. 17:11). The rainbow is a sign of God’s promise not to destroy the world by water and rain; rainbows appear only with rain (Gen. 9:13). (In the original Hebrew text, both the custom of circumcision and the rainbow that appears after the great flood are called “signs.”) The early Passover plagues both bring and warn of judgment, while the healing miracles of Jesus both bring and promise blessing. While signs point to unseen realities, these realities do not diminish the value or importance of the visible world. Instead, the unseen realities themselves are ultimately expressed in the visible world.
Direct Matches
The Bible depicts war and warlike acts throughout. The armsare both offensive and defensive in nature. The most common types ofoffensive weapons are swords, axes, spears, bows and arrows, slings,and stones. Defensive weapons include the shield and the helmet. Anarmy’s arsenal was usually kept in a storehouse called anarmory (1 Kings 10:17; Isa. 22:8; Neh. 3:19).
Arms
Sword.In the OT, the word “sword” (khereb) appears for thefirst time in Gen. 3:24 after Adam and Eve have been evicted from thegarden of Eden. A flaming sword was placed there “to guard theway to the tree of life.” Thus, the first use of the sword isdefensive. Later in Genesis, Jacob’s sons use swords to avengethe rape of their sister Dinah (Gen. 34:25–26). In most casesthe word describes the weapon of choice for most of antiquity. Swordswere manufactured of iron (1 Sam. 13:19; Joel 3:10). Some wereshort and easy to maneuver (Judg. 3:16), while others were long andheavy (1 Sam. 21:9). They could be single- or double-edged, andthey were worn in a sheath or scabbard (1 Sam. 17:51; 2 Sam.20:8). The sword was also supported by a girdle made of leatherstudded with nails (1 Sam. 18:4; 2 Sam. 20:8). Sometimes,the sword was used figuratively to speak of God’s judgment(Lev. 26:6; Isa. 1:20; Jer. 47:6; 50:35–37; Ezek. 21:9, 28;Hos. 11:6). In the NT, the most common word describing a sword is theGreek machaira, which is used to describe the weapons wielded by themob that came to arrest Jesus (Matt. 26:47, 55; Mark 14:48), as wellas the weapon used by Peter to cut off Malchus’s ear (John18:10). Another Greek word translated “sword” isrhomphaia, which describes a longer sword, generally worn over one’sshoulder (Rev. 1:16; 6:8; 19:21). The word “sword” isalso used figuratively in the NT. The word of God is designated as“the sword of the Spirit” (Eph. 6:17) and as a“double-edged sword” (Heb. 4:12).
Spear.Four main words in the Bible are translated as “spear” or“javelin.” The Hebrew word romakh is translated “spear”or “javelin,” and it appears fifteen times in the OT. Thespear was made of iron (Joel 3:10), and those who fell prey to itnever survived its penetration (Num. 25:7; 1 Kings 18:28). Theother Hebrew word used for the spear is khanit, which appears aboutfifty times in the OT. It is used to describe Goliath’s spearwhen he fought David (1 Sam. 17:7), Saul’s spear when hehurled it at David (1 Sam. 18:10–11), and theAssyrian-made “glittering” spear (Nah. 3:3). The thirdword is khidon, which appears about ten times in the OT. It describesa weapon in the arsenals of Joshua (Josh. 8:18, 26), Goliath (1 Sam.17:6), and the Babylonians (Jer. 6:23). In the NT, the word “spear”(Gk. longchē) occurs only once, referring to the weapon used topierce Jesus’ side at his crucifixion (John 19:34).
Bowand arrow.The bow and arrow was an important offensive weapon in Israel and thesurrounding cultures. In the Bible, bow and arrow, either incombination or individually, appear in both a literal (2 Kings9:24; Isa. 37:33) and a figurative sense (Pss. 11:2; 64:7; Isa. 49:2;Lam. 3:12; Zech. 9:13). There is extrabiblical evidence suggestingthat the Egyptians and the Syrians also used the bow and arrow aspart of their military arsenal.
Sling.Primitive but effective, the sling was used not only in Israel butalso in Egypt and Babylon. Easy to manufacture, it used stones asammunition; thus it was the weapon of choice for those lacking rawmaterial to build weapons made of metal. Besides David’s use ofthe sling in his encounter with Goliath (1 Sam. 17:40), men fromthe tribe of Benjamin used the sling with remarkable accuracy (Judg.20:16).
Ax.Besides its primary role for cutting down trees (Deut. 19:5; Judg.9:48; Jer. 10:3), the ax probably was used in war as well. (See alsoAx, Ax Head.)
Armor
Shield.The shield is one of the most ancient defense weapons. Two Hebrewwords are used to depict a shield. The magen appears for the firsttime in Gen. 15:1, where it is used figuratively to speak of God’sprotection of Abraham. It is used in the same manner one other time,in Deut. 33:29. It is frequently used as a figure of speech by thepsalmists to denote the same idea of divine protection (Pss. 3:3;7:10; 18:2, 30; 28:7; 33:20; 59:11; 84:9, 11; 115:9–11;119:114; 144:2). When used literally, the term refers to a shieldmade of wood and sometimes overlaid with leather. Solomon used goldto manufacture shields (1 Kings 10:17), while Rehoboammanufactured them of bronze (1 Kings 14:27). This type of shieldwas used as a defensive weapon by the Israelites throughout theirhistory (Judg. 5:8; 1 Chron. 5:18; 2 Chron. 9:16; 14:8;17:17; 23:9; Neh. 4:16). It was also used by the Syrians (Isa. 22:6),Assyrians (Isa. 37:33), Egyptians (Jer. 46:3), and Persians (Ezek.27:10). The other Hebrew term translated “shield” istsinnah. This was larger than the magen and was meant to cover thefighter’s entire body. It was the type of shield carried byGoliath’s shield bearer (1 Sam. 17:7, 41), manufactured byKing Solomon (1 Kings 10:16), used by the Gadites who joinedDavid while fleeing from Saul (1 Chron. 12:8), and used byIsrael’s army during the reigns of Rehoboam (2 Chron.11:12) and Asa (2 Chron. 14:8). The Greek word thyreos is theLXX rendering of the Hebrew tsinnah, and it appears only once in theNT. Paul uses the word figuratively when speaking about the “shieldof faith” (Eph. 6:16).
Helmet.The helmet had the obvious defensive purpose of protecting acombatant’s head. It was made of leather or light metal, suchas bronze (1 Sam. 17:5, 38). In both Testaments, salvation isspoken of figuratively as a “helmet” (Isa. 59:17; Eph.6:17; 1 Thess. 5:8).
Coatof mail.Body armor was used for the protection of the warrior not only inIsrael but also in other ancient Near Eastern nations. The Hebrewterm shiryon is variously translated as “coat of mail”(ESV, RSV, NRSV), “coat of scale armor” (NIV), or“habergeon” (KJV). Goliath wore this type of body armor(1 Sam. 17:5, 38), and his was manufactured of bronze. Despitewearing a shiryon, Israel’s king Ahab was fatally wounded inbattle (1 Kings 22:34). In an attempt to strengthen Judah’smilitary power, King Uzziah also provided coats of mail for his army(2 Chron. 26:14). It was also used during postexilic times,Nehemiah’s workers having benefited from its protection (Neh.4:16). Shiryon (Gk. thorax) is used figuratively to speak of a“breastplate” of righteousness and of love (Isa. 59:17;Eph. 6:14; 1 Thess. 5:8).
Clubs were used for warfare and hunting (2 Sam. 23:21;Job 41:29). Isaiah describes the Assyrians as a club in the hand ofYahweh (Isa. 10:5; see also Jer. 51:20). Those who arrested Jesuscarried clubs (Matt. 26:47).
GreetingCustoms in Biblical Times
Weknow of greeting customs in biblical times from narrations ofgreetings and from instructions on greeting.
Inbiblical Hebrew, the phrase usually translated “to greet”is literally “to inquire of someone’s well-being[shalom]” (e.g., Exod. 18:7; 2Sam. 20:9 [cf. the Englishgreeting “How are you?”]). In some instances, we seepeople “blessing” one another as a form of greeting:“Just as he finished making the offering, Samuel arrived, andSaul went out to greet [lit., ‘bless’] him” (1Sam.13:10). Ruth 2:4 provides an example of the words that passed betweenindividuals in such a greeting: “Just then Boaz arrived fromBethlehem and greeted the harvesters, ‘The Lord be with you!’‘The Lord bless you!’ they answered.” The formulahad changed little by the first century AD, when Gabriel said toMary, “Greetings, you who are highly favored! The Lord is withyou” (Luke 1:28). Luke reports that “Mary was greatlytroubled at his words and wondered what kind of greeting this mightbe” (1:29), though the source of her consternation is unclear,since the angel’s greeting closely approximates that of Boaz.Perhaps this is the very point: the angel was speaking in adistinctively “biblical-sounding” vernacular, whichraised the concerns of the young, first-century AD woman.
Pauloften instructs the recipients of his letters to greet one anotherwith a “holy kiss” (Rom. 16:16; 1Cor. 16:20; 2Cor.13:12; 1Thess. 5:26; see also 1Pet. 5:14). Tragically, akiss of greeting was the signal by which Judas Iscariot betrayedJesus (Matt. 26:48–49). Other examples of greeting with a kissinclude Gen. 29:11, 13; 33:4; 45:15; Exod. 4:27; 18:7; 2Sam.20:9; Prov. 7:13. In other cases, kisses were exchanged as a farewellgreeting (Gen. 31:28, 55; 48:10; 50:1; Ruth 1:9, 14; 1Sam.20:41; 2Sam. 19:39; 1Kings 19:20; Acts 20:37). Jesustaught his disciples to be generous with their greetings; after all,even pagans will greet their brothers and sisters, but a Christianmust extend greetings even beyond the narrow circle of kinship (Matt.5:47). When entering a home, Jesus taught, his disciples were togreet the inhabitants (Matt. 10:12). At other times, however, Jesustold his disciples to forgo greetings along the road in the interestof arriving quickly at their destination (Luke 10:4).
Greetingand Social Rank
Inthe examples of Ruth 2:4 and Luke 1:28 above, the greeting isinitiated by the person of higher status. Boaz was a wealthylandowner greeting fieldworkers, and Gabriel was an important angelgreeting a young, unmarried woman. An analogy may be drawn to anothersocial norm, the notion that it was appropriate for the greaterperson to bless the lesser: “Without doubt the lesser isblessed by the greater” (Heb. 7:7). Elsewhere in the Bible, theopposite practice is referred to, when Jesus criticizes the teachersof the law and the Pharisees because, among other honors, “theylove to be greeted with respect in the marketplace and to be called‘Rabbi’ by others” (Matt. 23:7). When Paul went toRome, believers from that city traveled about forty miles to meet andgreet him as he approached the city (Acts 28:15), thus according tohim the honors due a traveling dignitary in antiquity (cf. Mark 9:15;1Thess. 4:17).
EpistolaryGreetings
Likemodern letters, ancient correspondence began with a salutation (Acts15:23; 23:26; James 1:1) (see Salutation). In particular, Paul usedthe greeting at the beginning of his epistles as an occasion fortheological elaboration in addition to its use as the identificationof the writer and the recipients of the letter. To the end of hisletters, Paul often appended individually directed greetings, as wellas greetings in the name of friends with whom he sent the letter(Rom. 16:3–16; 1Cor. 16:19–21; 2Cor.13:12–13; Phil. 4:22–23; Col. 4:10–15; 2Tim.4:19–21; Titus 3:15; Philem. 1:23; see also Heb. 13:24; 1Pet.5:13; 2John 13; 3John 14).
While kissing is sometimes a sign of an erotic relationship,especially in Song of Songs (1:2; 8:1), in the Bible kissinggenerally is a sign of respect or friendship. Paul viewed kissing asan important sign of love between believers, instructing them togreet each other with a “holy kiss” (Rom. 16:16; 1Cor.16:20). Peter also instructs readers to greet each other with “akiss of love” (1Pet.5:14). Kissing in thesecontexts was very similar to the contemporary practice of shakinghands.
Inthe OT kissing was often used as a sign of blessing, as when Labankissed his grandchildren (Gen. 31:28, 55), and Jacob on his deathbedkissed his sons (Gen. 48:10). Luke 7:36–50 records the act of asinful woman anointing Jesus’ feet with perfume and kissing hisfeet in a sign of humble devotion to him. Kissing could also be asign of homage to an idol (Hos. 13:2).
Probablythe most famous kiss in the Bible is Judas’s kiss of Jesus toidentify him to those who intended to arrest him (Matt. 26:49; Mark14:44; Luke 22:47–48). Thus, the phrase “Judas kiss”has become a term indicating betrayal.
A Roman army division consisting of approximately sixthousand soldiers. Jesus once encountered a demon-possessed man who,when asked his name, replied, “My name is Legion, ...for we are many” (Mark 5:9). Jesus cast the evil spirits out ofthe man and into a herd of pigs, and the entire herd, about twothousand animals, drowned (Mark 5:1–20; Luke 8:26–39).When Peter attempted to fight those who arrested Jesus in the gardenof Gethsemane, Jesus ordered him to put away his sword, saying thathe could immediately have twelve legions of angels at his disposal(Matt. 26:53).
A title applied to teachers and others in respectedpositions, literally meaning “my master.” By the NT era,the term was used in a more specific sense to refer to teachers ofthe Mosaic law.
Inthe NT, the title occurs only in the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, andJohn, and it is most commonly used to address Jesus. In Mark’sGospel the disciples three times address Jesus as “Rabbi”(Mark 9:5; 11:21; 14:45). In Matthew’s Gospel only Judas callsJesus “Rabbi” and only in the context of betraying Jesus(Matt. 26:25, 49). The title is used more widely in John’sGospel by individuals such as Nathanael and Nicodemus, as well as thegroup of disciples (John 1:38, 49; 3:2; 4:31; 6:25; 9:2; 11:8). Thetitle conveys the respect of pupil for master and indicates thenature of the relationship that Jesus had with his followers.
Otherswere also called “Rabbi,” including John the Baptist andsome of the Pharisees (John 3:26; Matt. 23:7). Although the Phariseesconsidered the title an honor, Jesus instructed his disciples not toallow themselves to be addressed as “Rabbi” and toacknowledge only one teacher, Christ (Matt. 23:8, 10). See alsoRabboni.
Secondary Matches
The following suggestions occured because
Matthew 26:47-56
is mentioned in the definition.
The Bible depicts war and warlike acts throughout. The armsare both offensive and defensive in nature. The most common types ofoffensive weapons are swords, axes, spears, bows and arrows, slings,and stones. Defensive weapons include the shield and the helmet. Anarmy’s arsenal was usually kept in a storehouse called anarmory (1 Kings 10:17; Isa. 22:8; Neh. 3:19).
Arms
Sword.In the OT, the word “sword” (khereb) appears for thefirst time in Gen. 3:24 after Adam and Eve have been evicted from thegarden of Eden. A flaming sword was placed there “to guard theway to the tree of life.” Thus, the first use of the sword isdefensive. Later in Genesis, Jacob’s sons use swords to avengethe rape of their sister Dinah (Gen. 34:25–26). In most casesthe word describes the weapon of choice for most of antiquity. Swordswere manufactured of iron (1 Sam. 13:19; Joel 3:10). Some wereshort and easy to maneuver (Judg. 3:16), while others were long andheavy (1 Sam. 21:9). They could be single- or double-edged, andthey were worn in a sheath or scabbard (1 Sam. 17:51; 2 Sam.20:8). The sword was also supported by a girdle made of leatherstudded with nails (1 Sam. 18:4; 2 Sam. 20:8). Sometimes,the sword was used figuratively to speak of God’s judgment(Lev. 26:6; Isa. 1:20; Jer. 47:6; 50:35–37; Ezek. 21:9, 28;Hos. 11:6). In the NT, the most common word describing a sword is theGreek machaira, which is used to describe the weapons wielded by themob that came to arrest Jesus (Matt. 26:47, 55; Mark 14:48), as wellas the weapon used by Peter to cut off Malchus’s ear (John18:10). Another Greek word translated “sword” isrhomphaia, which describes a longer sword, generally worn over one’sshoulder (Rev. 1:16; 6:8; 19:21). The word “sword” isalso used figuratively in the NT. The word of God is designated as“the sword of the Spirit” (Eph. 6:17) and as a“double-edged sword” (Heb. 4:12).
Spear.Four main words in the Bible are translated as “spear” or“javelin.” The Hebrew word romakh is translated “spear”or “javelin,” and it appears fifteen times in the OT. Thespear was made of iron (Joel 3:10), and those who fell prey to itnever survived its penetration (Num. 25:7; 1 Kings 18:28). Theother Hebrew word used for the spear is khanit, which appears aboutfifty times in the OT. It is used to describe Goliath’s spearwhen he fought David (1 Sam. 17:7), Saul’s spear when hehurled it at David (1 Sam. 18:10–11), and theAssyrian-made “glittering” spear (Nah. 3:3). The thirdword is khidon, which appears about ten times in the OT. It describesa weapon in the arsenals of Joshua (Josh. 8:18, 26), Goliath (1 Sam.17:6), and the Babylonians (Jer. 6:23). In the NT, the word “spear”(Gk. longchē) occurs only once, referring to the weapon used topierce Jesus’ side at his crucifixion (John 19:34).
Bowand arrow.The bow and arrow was an important offensive weapon in Israel and thesurrounding cultures. In the Bible, bow and arrow, either incombination or individually, appear in both a literal (2 Kings9:24; Isa. 37:33) and a figurative sense (Pss. 11:2; 64:7; Isa. 49:2;Lam. 3:12; Zech. 9:13). There is extrabiblical evidence suggestingthat the Egyptians and the Syrians also used the bow and arrow aspart of their military arsenal.
Sling.Primitive but effective, the sling was used not only in Israel butalso in Egypt and Babylon. Easy to manufacture, it used stones asammunition; thus it was the weapon of choice for those lacking rawmaterial to build weapons made of metal. Besides David’s use ofthe sling in his encounter with Goliath (1 Sam. 17:40), men fromthe tribe of Benjamin used the sling with remarkable accuracy (Judg.20:16).
Ax.Besides its primary role for cutting down trees (Deut. 19:5; Judg.9:48; Jer. 10:3), the ax probably was used in war as well. (See alsoAx, Ax Head.)
Armor
Shield.The shield is one of the most ancient defense weapons. Two Hebrewwords are used to depict a shield. The magen appears for the firsttime in Gen. 15:1, where it is used figuratively to speak of God’sprotection of Abraham. It is used in the same manner one other time,in Deut. 33:29. It is frequently used as a figure of speech by thepsalmists to denote the same idea of divine protection (Pss. 3:3;7:10; 18:2, 30; 28:7; 33:20; 59:11; 84:9, 11; 115:9–11;119:114; 144:2). When used literally, the term refers to a shieldmade of wood and sometimes overlaid with leather. Solomon used goldto manufacture shields (1 Kings 10:17), while Rehoboammanufactured them of bronze (1 Kings 14:27). This type of shieldwas used as a defensive weapon by the Israelites throughout theirhistory (Judg. 5:8; 1 Chron. 5:18; 2 Chron. 9:16; 14:8;17:17; 23:9; Neh. 4:16). It was also used by the Syrians (Isa. 22:6),Assyrians (Isa. 37:33), Egyptians (Jer. 46:3), and Persians (Ezek.27:10). The other Hebrew term translated “shield” istsinnah. This was larger than the magen and was meant to cover thefighter’s entire body. It was the type of shield carried byGoliath’s shield bearer (1 Sam. 17:7, 41), manufactured byKing Solomon (1 Kings 10:16), used by the Gadites who joinedDavid while fleeing from Saul (1 Chron. 12:8), and used byIsrael’s army during the reigns of Rehoboam (2 Chron.11:12) and Asa (2 Chron. 14:8). The Greek word thyreos is theLXX rendering of the Hebrew tsinnah, and it appears only once in theNT. Paul uses the word figuratively when speaking about the “shieldof faith” (Eph. 6:16).
Helmet.The helmet had the obvious defensive purpose of protecting acombatant’s head. It was made of leather or light metal, suchas bronze (1 Sam. 17:5, 38). In both Testaments, salvation isspoken of figuratively as a “helmet” (Isa. 59:17; Eph.6:17; 1 Thess. 5:8).
Coatof mail.Body armor was used for the protection of the warrior not only inIsrael but also in other ancient Near Eastern nations. The Hebrewterm shiryon is variously translated as “coat of mail”(ESV, RSV, NRSV), “coat of scale armor” (NIV), or“habergeon” (KJV). Goliath wore this type of body armor(1 Sam. 17:5, 38), and his was manufactured of bronze. Despitewearing a shiryon, Israel’s king Ahab was fatally wounded inbattle (1 Kings 22:34). In an attempt to strengthen Judah’smilitary power, King Uzziah also provided coats of mail for his army(2 Chron. 26:14). It was also used during postexilic times,Nehemiah’s workers having benefited from its protection (Neh.4:16). Shiryon (Gk. thorax) is used figuratively to speak of a“breastplate” of righteousness and of love (Isa. 59:17;Eph. 6:14; 1 Thess. 5:8).
The historical origins of Christianity need to be set against Jewish history, beliefs, and culture in Palestine and the eastern Mediterranean, but they also need to be set in the context of the wider Greco-Roman world that was dominated politically and militarily by the Roman Empire.
From Republic to Empire
Rome began as a city-state but soon became a transcontinental empire reaching over parts of Europe, Africa, and Asia. Rome emerged as the most dominant force in the Mediterranean after it defeated Carthage in the Second Punic War (218–201 BC). Thereafter, Rome began to expand its control and power over the various Hellenistic city-states in the east, including Macedonia, Illyria, and Asia Minor. By the mid-first century AD, Rome had also conquered or annexed Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Cyrene, Gaul, Spain, North Africa, and Armenia.
The transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire took place under the Roman emperors beginning with Julius Caesar (100–44 BC), who, after crossing the Rubicon and defeating Pompey, was proclaimed dictator perpetuus (“dictator for life”). The period after Julius Caesar’s assassination (44 BC) was a time of political upheaval as Rome was marred by a series of civil wars. The first was between Octavius and Antony against Caesar’s assassins Brutus and Cassius. This climaxed in the Battle of Philippi (42 BC), which the former allies of Julius Caesar won. The second was between Octavius and Antony, where Antony and Cleopatra were defeated at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, leaving Octavius as the undisputed leader of Rome.
Octavius was given the honorific name “Augustus” by the senate. His reign (31 BC–AD 14) marked a period of consolidation, reorganization, and renewal of the Roman Empire. Augustus embarked on an empire-wide policy of fiscal rationalization, developed a constitutional settlement for Rome, centralized his military authority over the various provinces, and had Julius Caesar deified. Writers and artists of the era heralded Augustus’s reign as a time of unprecedented peace and security—peace from civil war and security from the Germanic tribes in the north and the Parthian Empire in the east. Worship of the emperor became more frequent especially in the Roman East, although Augustus did not permit it in Rome. What is most significant about Augustus is that it is with his reign that the Roman Empire essentially began. He was the emperor at the time of Jesus’ birth (Luke 2:1). It was under Trajan (AD 98–117), however, that the Roman Empire expanded to its largest area, encompassing parts of Britain and Persia.
Emperors (AD 14–98)
Tiberius, Augustus’s adopted heir, reigned in the years AD 14–37. He was a highly successful military general, but as emperor he was remembered as being gloomy and melancholic. Tiberius even went into a self-imposed exile for a time, leaving the praetorian prefect Sejanus in charge until Tiberius finally had him executed for treason. It was during the reign of Tiberius that Jesus conducted his ministry in Palestine.
Tiberius was succeeded by his adopted grandson Caligula, who reigned in the years AD 37–41. Caligula was the son of the popular Roman general Germanicus, who died in Antioch in AD 19. Historical sources are not favorably disposed toward Caligula, who was remembered as a malevolent tyrant given to self-aggrandizement and sexual perversity. In AD 39/40 Caligula departed from imperial policy that permitted emperor worship in the east and veneration of deceased emperors in Rome, and he often appeared dressed as a god in public and demanded worship as a living god. During this time he deposed Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, on suspicion of consorting with Parthia (Josephus, Ant. 18.7). Caligula also ordered that his statue be placed in the holy of holies in the Jerusalem temple (Philo, Embassy 203). Petronius, the governor of Syria, knowing that such an act would lead to civil war, refused to comply and appealed to Caligula to reverse the order. In response, Caligula sent an order to Petronius that he commit suicide. Fortunately, news of Caligula’s assassination by a conspiracy involving the praetorian guard and senators reached Petronius first.
Claudius, Caligula’s uncle, reigned in the years AD 41–54, and his rule was defined by numerous public works, a reordering of the judicial system, a torrid series of marriages, the conquest of Britain, and a number of attempted coups by the Roman senate. In AD 49 he expelled the Jews from Rome because of disputes about a certain “Chrestus,” probably Christ (cf. Acts 18:2). No one is sure whether Claudius was murdered or died of old age, but he remained a sharp contrast to the brutal excesses of Caligula and Nero.
Nero, the stepson of Claudius, reigned in the years AD 54–68. The early period of his rule was marked by cultural endeavors and diplomatic efforts. The later years were, in contrast, distinguished by tyranny and self-aggrandizement. There was a Jewish revolt against Rome in Judea (AD 66–70) during Nero’s reign, and Vespasian was sent to pacify the territory. According to ancient sources, Nero accused Christians of starting the fire of Rome in AD 64 and subjected them to the cruelest of punishments, including crucifixion, being thrown to wild animals, and even being burned alive. It probably was during this time that the apostles Peter and Paul were martyred in Rome. Nero eventually was declared a public enemy by the Roman senate, and he committed suicide before he could be captured in AD 68. There arose a “Nero redivivus” legend, whereby many hoped or feared that Nero had not died in AD 68 but had fled to Parthia and would return to Rome in order to destroy it (Sib.Or. 4.119–124; 5.137–141, 361–396), and this arguably stands behind the imagery of Rev. 13:3; 17:8–11.
The suicide of Nero left a power vacuum in Rome, and AD 69 saw no less than four emperors ascend the throne: Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and finally Vespasian. Galba was governor of Hispania Tarraconensis and was invited to become emperor by the senate, but he was killed by the praetorian guard after they were bribed by the praetor Otho. Otho himself committed suicide after his forces were defeated by Vitellius, the commander of the legions on the Rhine. Vitellius became emperor, but he was fiscally irresponsible and murdered many of his rivals. The legions in the Danube, Egypt, Syria, and Judea had declared Vespasian emperor and marched on Rome. Vespasian controlled the grain supplies to Rome from Egypt and had a superior force. Vitellius’s forces were defeated at Bedriacum, and Vitellius went into hiding but eventually was killed in Rome. Vespasian was declared emperor by the senate, and so began the Flavian dynasty, which restored order after the chaos of civil war.
The Flavians ruled in the years AD 69–96. Vespasian (r. AD 69–79) consolidated the empire after its year of strife and instituted new taxes, such as the fiscus judaicus, a war reparation tax placed on all Jews and paid to the temple of Jupiter in lieu of the Jerusalem temple tax. Vespasian was succeeded by his sons Titus (r.AD 79–81) and Domitian (r. AD 81–96). When Vespasian sailed to Rome from Judea, Titus was left in charge of the siege of Jerusalem, which he completed and celebrated in a triumph in Rome in AD 72. This triumph is memorialized in the Arch of Titus, which depicts Roman soldiers bringing the vessels of the temple to Rome as part of the booty taken. Later Roman writers regarded Domitian as a malevolent and malicious tyrant (e.g., Tacitus, Suetonius), but this probably is an exaggeration caused partly by a desire to highlight the greatness of succeeding emperors such as Nerva and Trajan. It probably was during the reign of Domitian that some Christians in Asia Minor were being persecuted for their failure to worship the emperor, as depicted in the book of Revelation.
Table 7. Roman Emperors (31 BC–AD 117)
31 BC-AD 14 – Augustus
AD 14-37 – Tiberius
AD 37-41 – Caligula
AD 41-54 – Claudius
AD 54-68 – Nero
AD 68-69 – Galba
AD 69 – Otho
AD 69 – Vitellius
AD 69-79 – Vespasian
AD 79-81 – Titus
AD 81-96 – Domitian
AD 96-98 – Nerva
AD 98-117 – Trajan
Military
Military expeditions expanded Rome’s control of foreign territories and safeguarded its borders from incursion, most threateningly from the Germanic tribes east of the Rhine River and north of the Danube River and from the Parthian (=Neo-Persian) Empire east of the Euphrates River. A Roman legion consisted of around six thousand men, including cavalry. Under Tiberius, there were twenty-five legions stationed across the empire: eight on the Rhine, three in Spain, two in Egypt, four in Syria, two in Africa, and six in the Danube region. In terms of command structures, the legions were under the control of certain regional commands by men of consular rank, including two on the Rhine, one in Spain, one in Syria, and three in the Balkans (Tacitus, Ann. 4.5). These were among the most powerful persons outside the ruling family and could be kingmakers or contenders during times of civil war. A legion was divided into ten cohorts and commanded by a legate, usually of senatorial rank. Units of one hundred were commanded by centurions, and service in the legions was set at between twenty and twenty-five years. Upon recruitment, the soldier swore an oath of loyalty to the emperor (sacramentum) that was renewed annually. During times of peace, Roman soldiers could perform a number of civil tasks relating to taxation, building projects, and policing.
Centurions are mentioned several times in the NT (e.g., Matt. 8:5; Mark 15:39; Acts 10:1; 21:32; 27:1). There is a mention of a “legion” of demons that oppressed the Gerasene demoniac (Mark 5:9), and Jesus refers to the possibility of the Father sending him “legions” of angels (Matt. 26:53). Military terminology is very apparent in Paul’s letters, where he refers to fighting armor (Rom. 13:11–13; 2Cor. 6:7; Eph. 6:10–18), compares commitment to Christ to military service (2Tim. 2:4), refers to his coworkers as “soldiers” or “fellow soldiers” (Phil. 2:25; Philem. 2; 2Tim. 2:3), and likens ministerial remuneration to a soldier being paid his salarium (1Cor. 9:7).
Culture and Religion
One of the primary reasons for Rome’s rise and dominance, militarily and culturally, was its capacity to absorb other peoples and even other gods into its constituency and pantheon. Its constantly growing pantheon, application of the rule of law, and superior military force made Rome what it was: a melting pot of all cultures and a Romanizer of other cultures.
Roman society was heavily stratified, but social mobility, upward and downward, was possible. Wealth, marriage, education, and military exploits were the primary means to social advancement. The senatorial class represented the wealthy nobility of Rome and provided the primary cohort of civil and military administrators. The equestrian class (or “knights,” as they are sometimes called) were a larger group of less wealthy Roman citizens. Decurions were members of civil councils in provincial cities who often acted as magistrates and were leaders of local communities. The plebeians represented the general citizenry of Rome, who, until the time of Tiberius, had some power in electing officials. Finally, there were freedmen, who were ex-slaves usually in a relationship with their former master, and also slaves, who were regarded as little more than property.
The ancient Roman religions focused on the numen, the somewhat impersonal divine power associated with certain localities. From the third century BC, Greek deities were assimilated and Romanized, so that Zeus became Jupiter, and Vesta was identified as Hestia. The Capitoline Hill was crowned with a temple that was dedicated around 500 BC to Jupiter, Minerva, and Juno. These were the principal gods of Rome, although others were added to the pantheon as the Romans conquered other peoples and adopted their gods. Other gods also received greater honor, such as the goddess Pax, the personification of peace (based on the Greek goddess Eirene); Vespasian built and dedicated a temple in her honor in Rome in AD 75. The Roman emperor was the Pontifex Maximus and supreme high priest of Rome and the empire. In the mid- to late first century AD, the fastest-growing religion was the imperial cult, the worship of (usually) deceased Roman emperors. This cult became popular in the eastern Mediterranean cities, where worship of rulers was commonplace, but was regarded with indifference in Rome.
Religions and philosophies from all over the known world eventually made their way to Rome. Egyptian rites and religions gained followings, Mithraism acquired currency within the ranks of the military and among public servants, Judaism entered Rome probably with the Hasmonean delegation sent there around 139 BC, and Christianity came to Rome probably during the late 30s and early 40s of the first century AD through Jewish pilgrims visiting the east and through Judean immigration to Rome. Many Roman intellectuals lamented the fact that so many foreign superstitions had found their way to Rome, and that Roman peoples found them more attractive than their own state religion. Roman religion was largely controlled by the state through a set calendar and the appointment of priests and vestal virgins. It was practiced in public and in the home. As such, religious life was very much intertwined with social and political life. Roman religion engendered the need for its citizens to act with pietas, the honoring of one’s obligations to the gods, and with religio, which designated appropriate scruples and rites in the presence of the gods.
Summary
The birth of the church and the growth of Christianity took place within the wider social, religious, and cultural context of the Greco-Roman world. The politics and power of the Roman Empire provide the backdrop for the birth of Jesus (Luke 2:1), and since Rome was considered to be the center of the world, it was necessary that Paul himself testify to Jesus Christ there (Acts 19:21). The history, literature, and cultural background of Rome form an important background to the NT and should be studied along with the history and literature of Judaism during the time of Jesus and the apostles. Although the Romans were the primary threat to the survival of Christians in the ancient world, after the conversion of Constantine in the fourth century AD, they became the primary means by which Christianity spread to the rest of Europe and western Asia. See also Roman Law.
The word “gang” appears only rarely in English translations of the Bible (e.g., Judg. 11:3 NIV; 1 Kings 11:24 NLT), but other terms with a similar meaning—a group of people gathered together under common allegiance to accomplish some purpose, often malicious—occur throughout Scripture. Most prominent are groups of raiders who rob (Hos. 7:1) and pillage (1Sam. 30:15–16). Generally, these groups are from outside Israel (e.g., 2Kings 13:20; 24:2), though David has his own “raiding bands” (1Chron. 12:18), and Job accuses God of besieging him with his “troops” (Job 19:12), using the same Hebrew word (gedud). Job loses his property to two such raiding parties (Job 1:15, 17). Hosea compares the actions of priests to marauders in ambush (Hos. 6:9). The bands that surround and threaten the life of the psalmist (Pss. 22:16; 86:14) might also be considered gangs. The Hebrew word there (’edah) also describes the followers of Korah who opposed Moses (Num. 16:5). In Egypt the Israelites were forced into work gangs (Exod. 1:11), and later Solomon conscripted the foreigners in Israel into his own slave labor force (1Kings 9:21). In the NT, large crowds often threaten Jesus (Luke 4:29–30) and his followers (Acts 14:19; 16:22; 21:27). But with the exception of those from the chief priests led by Judas (Matt. 26:47; Mark 14:43; Luke 22:47; John 18:3) and the gang of over forty Jewish men who bound themselves in an oath to murder the apostle Paul (Acts 23:12–13), these groups do not seem organized enough to qualify as gangs.
The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesusfollowers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christembodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in humanhistory.
Introduction
Name.Early Christians combined the name “Jesus” with the title“Christ” (Acts 5:42; NIV: “Messiah”). Thename “Jesus,” from the Hebrew Yehoshua or Yeshua, was acommon male name in first-century Judaism. The title “Christ”is from the Greek christos, a translation of the Hebrew mashiakh(“anointed one, messiah”). Christians eventually werenamed after Jesus’ title (Acts 11:26). During the ministry ofJesus, Peter was the first disciple to recognize Jesus as the Messiah(Matt. 16:16; Mark 9:29; Luke 9:20).
Sources.From the viewpoint of Christianity, the life and ministry of Jesusconstitute the turning point in human history. From a historicalperspective, ample early source materials would be expected. Indeed,both Christian and non-Christian first-century and earlysecond-century literary sources are extant, but they are few innumber. In part, this low incidence is due to society’s initialresistance to the Jesus followers’ movement. The ancient Romanhistorian Tacitus called Christianity “a superstition,”since its beliefs did not fit with the culture’s prevailingworldview and thus were considered antisocial. Early literary sourcestherefore are either in-group documents or allusions in non-Christiansources.
TheNT Gospels are the principal sources for the life and ministry ofJesus. They consist of Matthew, Mark, Luke (the Synoptic Gospels),and John. Most scholars adhere to the so-called Four SourceHypothesis. In this theory, Mark was written first and was used as asource by Matthew and Luke, who also used the sayings source Q (fromGerman Quelle, meaning “source”) as well as their ownindividual sources M (Matthew) and L (Luke). John used additionalsources.
Theearly church tried to put together singular accounts, so-calledGospel harmonies, of the life of Jesus. The Gospel of the Ebionitesrepresents one such attempt based on the Synoptic Gospels. Anotherharmony, the Diatessaron, based on all four Gospels, was producedaround AD 170 by Tatian. Additional source materials concerning thelife of Christ are provided in the NT in texts such as Acts, thePauline Epistles, the General Epistles, and the Revelation of John.Paul wrote to the Galatians, “But when the time had fully come,God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under law” (Gal. 4:4).The first narrative about Jesus by the Christian community was apassion narrative, the account of his death and resurrection. Thefirst extant references to this tradition are found in Paul’sletters (1Cor. 2:2; Gal. 3:1). The resurrection was recognizedfrom the beginning as the cornerstone of the Christian faith (1Cor.15:13–14).
Amongnon-Christian sources, the earliest reference to Jesus is found in aletter written circa AD 112 by Pliny the Younger, the Roman governorof Bithynia-Pontus (Ep. 10.96). The Roman historian Tacitus mentionsChristians and Jesus around AD 115 in his famous work about thehistory of Rome (Ann. 15.44). Another Roman historian, Suetonius,wrote around the same time concerning unrest among the Jews in Romebecause of a certain “Chrestos” (Claud. 25.4). Somescholars conclude that “Chrestos” is a misspelling of“Christos,” a reference to Jesus.
TheJewish author Josephus (first century AD) mentions Jesus in a storyabout the Jewish high priest Ananus and James the brother of Jesus(Ant. 20.200). A controversial reference to Jesus appears in adifferent part of the same work, where Josephus affirms that Jesus isthe Messiah and that he rose from the dead (Ant. 18.63–64). Themajority of scholars consider this passage to be authentic butheavily edited by later Christian copyists. Another Jewish source,the Talmud, also mentions Jesus in several places, but thesereferences are very late and of little historical value.
NoncanonicalGospels that mention Jesus include, for example, the Infancy Gospelof Thomas, the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Peter, the Gospel ofJames, the Gospel of Judas Iscariot, the Gospel of the Hebrews, theEgerton Gospel, and the Gospel of Judas. Although some of these maycontain an occasional authentic saying or event, for the most partthey are late and unreliable.
Jesus’Life
Birthand childhood. TheGospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehemduring the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesuswas probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’sdeath (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of avirginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18;Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governorQuirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place inBethlehem (2:1–5). Both the census and the governorship at thetime of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars.Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to eitherconfirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must bedetermined on the basis of one’s view regarding the generalreliability of the Gospel tradition.
Onthe eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keepingwith the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus”(Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home ofhis parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel ofLuke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth instrength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke alsocontains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).
Jesuswas born in a lower socioeconomic setting. His parents offered atemple sacrifice appropriate for those who could not afford tosacrifice a sheep (Luke 2:22–24; cf. Lev. 12:8). Joseph, Jesus’earthly father, was a carpenter or an artisan in wood, stone, ormetal (Matt. 13:55). From a geographical perspective, Nazareth wasnot a prominent place for settling, since it lacked fertile ground.Jesus’ disciple Nathanael expressed an apparently commonfirst-century sentiment concerning Nazareth: “Nazareth! Cananything good come from there?” (John 1:46).
Jesuswas also born in a context of scandal. Questions of illegitimacy weresurely raised, since his mother Mary was discovered to be pregnantbefore her marriage to Joseph. According to Matthew, only theintervention of an angel convinced Joseph not to break his betrothal(Matt. 1:18–24). Jesus’ birth took place in Bethlehem,far from his parents’ home in Nazareth. According to kinshiphospitality customs, Joseph and Mary would have expected to stay withdistant relatives in Bethlehem. It is likely that they were unwelcomebecause of Jesus’ status as an illegitimate child; thus Maryhad to give birth elsewhere and place the infant Jesus in a feedingtrough (Luke 2:7). A similar response was seen years later inNazareth when Jesus was identified as “Mary’s son”(Mark 6:3) rather than through his paternal line, thereby shaming himas one who was born an illegitimate child. Jesus was likewiserejected at the end of his life as the crowds cried, “Crucifyhim!” (Matt. 27:22–23; Mark 15:13–14; Luke 23:21;John 19:6, 15). When Jesus was arrested, most of his followers fled(Matt. 26:56; Mark 14:50–52), and a core disciple, Peter,vehemently denied knowing him (Matt. 26:69–74; Mark 14:66–71;Luke 22:55–60; John 18:15–17, 25–27). His ownsiblings did not believe in him (John 7:5) and were evidently ashamedof his fate, since from the cross Jesus placed the care of his motherinto the hands of “the disciple whom he loved” (19:26–27)rather than the next brother in line, as was customary.
Baptism,temptation, and start of ministry.After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring tohim as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22).Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instantministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into thewilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11;Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that thetemptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Lukeidentify three specific temptations by the devil, though their orderfor the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesuswas tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine interventionafter jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’skingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation,quoting Scripture in response.
Matthewand Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum inGalilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13;Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirtyyears of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity orperhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of theLevites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning ofJesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples andthe sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).
Jesus’public ministry: chronology.Jesus’ ministry started in Galilee, probably around AD 27/28,and ended with his death around AD 30 in Jerusalem. The temple hadbeen forty-six years in construction (generally interpreted as thetemple itself and the wider temple complex) when Jesus drove out themoney changers (John 2:20). According to Josephus, the rebuilding andexpansion of the second temple had started in 20/19 BC, during theeighteenth year of Herod’s reign (Ant. 15.380). The ministry ofJohn the Baptist had commenced in the fifteenth year of Tiberius(Luke 3:1–2), who had become a coregent in AD 11/12. From thesedates of the start of the temple building and the correlation of thereign of Tiberius to John the Baptist’s ministry, the onset ofJesus’ ministry can probably be dated to AD 27/28.
TheGospel of John mentions three Passovers and another unnamed feast inJohn 5:1. The length of Jesus’ ministry thus extended overthree or four Passovers, equaling about three or three and a halfyears. Passover, which took place on the fifteenth of Nisan, came ona Friday in AD 30 and 33. The year of Jesus’ death wastherefore probably AD 30.
Jesus’ministry years may be divided broadly into his Galilean and hisJudean ministries. The Synoptic Gospels describe the ministry inGalilee from various angles but converge again as Jesus enters Judea.
Galileanministry.The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and aroundGalilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that thekingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment ofprophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ firstteaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30);the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for hiscalling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection andsuffering.
AllGospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in hisGalilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioningof the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers isrecorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministryis the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, inparticular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synopticsfocus on healings and exorcisms.
DuringJesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with hisidentity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority(Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family(3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner ofBeelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesustold parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growingkingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humblebeginnings (4:1–32).
TheSynoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful.No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority orability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized manydemons (Mark 5:1–13), raised the dead (Mark 5:35–42), fedfive thousand (Mark 6:30–44), and walked on water (Mark6:48–49).
Inthe later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew andtraveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are notwritten with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns toGalilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey toJerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fearresolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee,where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ discipleswith lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed thePharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents(7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demandinga sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, whoconfessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus didprovide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).
Jesuswithdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician womanrequested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sentonly to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans hadlong resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality thatallotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere“crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Eventhe dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,”Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-muteman in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’sconfession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The citywas the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.
Judeanministry.Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry ashe resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually ledto his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem intothree phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27).The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of thejourney. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, andthe demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem(Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45;Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journeytoward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvationand judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase ofthe journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are themain themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).
Socialconflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposteinteractions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel(Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomicfeathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who hadlittle value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16;Luke 18:15–17).
PassionWeek, death, and resurrection. Eachof the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with thecrowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Lukedescribes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during whichJesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).
InJerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17).Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because thewhole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “beganlooking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segmentof Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions(12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation(12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s owndestruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, JudasIscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’arrest (14:10–11).
Atthe Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a newcovenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29;Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned thedisciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and laterhe prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agonyand submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42;Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial,crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15;Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18).Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission bymaking disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8)and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return(Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).
TheIdentity of Jesus Christ
Variousaspects of Jesus’ identity are stressed in the four NT Gospels,depending on their target audiences. In the Gospels the witnesses toJesus’ ministry are portrayed as constantly questioning andexamining his identity (Matt. 11:2–5; 12:24; 26:63; 27:11; Mark3:22; 8:11; 11:28; 14:61; Luke 7:18–20; 11:15; 22:67, 70;23:39; John 7:20, 25–27; 18:37). Only beings of the spiritualrealm are certain of his divinity (Mark 1:34; 3:11; Luke 4:41). AtJesus’ baptism, God referred to him as his Son, whom he loved(Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Likewise, when Jesus wastransfigured in the presence of Peter, James, and John, a voiceaffirmed, “This is my Son, whom I love” (Matt. 17:5; Mark9:7). At the moment of his death, the questioning of Jesus’identity culminated in a confession by a Roman centurion and otherguards: “Surely he was the Son of God!” (Matt. 27:54; cf.Mark 15:39).
Miracleworker.In the first-century setting, folk healers and miracle workers werepart of the fabric of society. Jesus, however, performed signs andmiracles in order to demonstrate the authority of the kingdom of Godover various realms: disease, illness, the spiritual world, nature,and even future events. Especially in the Gospel of John, Jesus’signs and miracles are used to show his authority and thus hisidentity.
Nochallenge superseded Jesus’ authority. Among his ample miraclesand signs, he changed water into wine (John 2:7–9), calmed astorm in the sea (Matt. 8:23–27; Mark 4:35–39; Luke8:22–25), exorcized demons (Matt. 9:32–34; Mark 5:1–13;Luke 9:42–43), healed the sick (Mark 1:40–44), raised thedead (Matt. 9:23–25; Mark 5:35–42; Luke 7:1–16;8:49–54; John 11:17, 38–44), performed miraculousfeedings (Matt. 14:17–21; 15:34–38; Mark 6:30–44;8:5–9; Luke 9:10–17; John 6:8–13), and walked onwater (Matt. 14:25–26; Mark 6:48–49; John 6:19).
ThePharisees requested miracles as evidence of his authority (Mark8:11–12). Jesus refused, claiming that a wicked and adulterousgeneration asks for a miraculous sign (Matt. 12:38–39; 16:1–4).The only sign that he would give was the sign of Jonah—hisdeath and resurrection three days later—a personal sacrifice,taking upon himself the judgment of the world (Matt. 12:39–41).
Rabbi/teacher.Jesus’ teaching style was similar to other first-century rabbisor Pharisees (Mark 9:5; 10:51; John 1:38; 3:2). What distinguishedhim was that he spoke with great personal authority (Matt. 5:22, 28,32, 39, 44; Mark 1:22). Like other rabbis of his day, Jesus gathereddisciples. He called these men to observe his lifestyle and to joinhim in his ministry of teaching, healing, and exorcism (Matt. 10:1–4;Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16).
Jesusused a variety of teaching methods. He frequently spoke in parables(Matt. 6:24; 13:24–52; 18:10–14, 23–35;21:28–22:14; 24:32–36, 45–51; 25:14–30; Mark4:1–34; 12:1–12; 13:28–34; Luke 8:4–18;12:41–46; 13:18–21; 14:15–24; 15:1–16:15,19–31; 18:1–14; 19:11–27; 20:9–19; 21:29–33),used figures of speech (John 10:9), hyperbole (Matt. 19:24; Mark10:25; Luke 18:25), argumentation (Matt. 26:11), object lessons(Matt. 24:32), frequent repetition (Matt. 13:44–47; Luke13:18–21), practical examples, and personal guidance.
Majorthemes in Jesus’ teaching include the kingdom of God, the costof discipleship, internal righteousness, the end of the age, hisidentity, his mission, and his approaching death. In his teachings,observance of Torah was given new context and meaning because God’skingdom had “come near” (Matt. 3:2). Jesus had come tofulfill the law (Matt. 5:17).
Jesus’teaching ministry often took place amid social conflict. Theseconflicts were couched in so-called challenge-riposte interactions inwhich the honor status of those involved was at stake. Jesus usedthese interactions as teachable moments. When questioned, Jesus gavereplies that reveal omniscience or intimate knowledge of God’swill, especially in the Gospel of John. In the Synoptic Gospels,Jesus’ answers are both ethical and practical in nature. TheSynoptics portray Jesus as challenged repeatedly with accusations ofviolating customs specified in the Jewish law. Jesus’ answersto such accusations often echoed the essence of 1Sam. 15:22,“To obey is better than sacrifice,” phrased by Jesus as“I desire mercy, not sacrifice” (Matt. 9:13; 12:7). Anoverall “better than” ethic was common in Jesus’public teaching.
TheSermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7) contains a “better than”ethic in which internal obedience is better than mere outwardobedience. For example, Jesus said that anger without cause is equalto murder (Matt. 5:21–22), that looking at a woman lustfullyamounts to adultery (Matt. 5:28), and that instead of revengingwrongs one must reciprocate with love (Matt. 5:38–48). Jesusvalued compassion above traditions and customs, even those containedwithin the OT law. He desired internal obedience above the letter ofthe law.
Jesus’teachings found their authority in the reality of God’simminent kingdom (Matt. 3:2; 10:7; Mark 1:15; Luke 10:9),necessitating repentance (Matt. 3:2), belief (Mark 1:15), dependence(Matt. 18:3–5; Mark 10:15), and loyalty to a new community—thefamily of Jesus followers (Mark 3:34; 10:29–30). Jesus urged,“Seek first [God’s] kingdom and his righteousness”(Matt. 6:33). Preaching with such urgency was common among propheticteachers of the intertestamental period. Jesus, however, had his owngrounds for urgency. He held that God deeply valued all humans (Matt.10:31) and would bring judgment swiftly (Matt. 25:31–46).
Examplesof a “greater good” ethic in the Synoptics include theoccasions when Jesus ate with sinners (Mark 2:16–17). Jesusused an aphorism in response to accusations about his associationswith sinners, saying, “It is not the healthy who need a doctor,but the sick. I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners”(Mark 2:17). He advocated harvesting and healing on the Sabbath (Mark2:23–28; 3:1–6), and when he was accused of breaking thelaw, he pointed to an OT exception (1Sam. 21:1–6) todeclare compassion appropriate for the Sabbath. Jesus also appliedthe “greater good” ethic in the case of divorce, sincewomen suffered the societal stigma of adultery and commonly becameoutcasts following divorce (Matt. 19:8–9; Mark 10:5–9).
Jesus’kingdom teachings were simultaneously spiritual, ethical, andeschatological in application. The teachings were aimed at internaltransformation (Matt. 5:3–9; 18:3; Mark 10:15) and spurring onlove (Matt. 5:44; 7:21). The Spirit of the Lord had called Jesus tobless the hurting ones as they aspired to a godly character. Jesustaught, “Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father isperfect” (Matt. 5:48), and “Be merciful, just as yourFather is merciful” (Luke 6:36). The “blessed” onesin Jesus’ teachings are poor of spirit, peace driven, mournful,and hungry for righteousness, consumed with emulating godlycharacter.
Somescholars believe that Jesus promoted an “interim ethic”for the kingdom, intended only for a short period prior to the end oftime. However, he was explicit regarding the longevity of histeachings: “Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words willnever pass away” (Matt. 24:35; Luke 16:17).
Messiah.The concept of an anointed one, a messiah, who would restore theglories of David’s kingdom and bring political stability wascommon in Jewish expectation. Both before and after the Babyloniancaptivity, many Jews longed for one who would bring peace andprotection. Israel’s prophets had spoken of a coming deliverer,one who would restore David’s kingdom and reign in justice andrighteousness (2Sam. 7:11–16; Isa. 9:1–7; 11:1–16;Jer. 23:5–6; 33:15–16; Ezek. 37:25; Dan. 2:44; Mic. 5:2;Zech. 9:9). Isaiah’s description of the servant (Isa. 53) whosesuffering healed the nation provided a slightly different angle ofexpectation in terms of a deliverer.
Jesus’authority and popularity as a miracle worker called up messianicimages in first-century Jewish minds. On several occasions hearerscalled him “Son of David,” hoping for the Messiah (Matt.12:23; 21:9). Simon Peter was the first follower who confessed Jesusas the Christ, the “Messiah” (Matt. 16:16; Mark 8:29). Inline with Isaiah’s model of the Suffering Servant, Jesusfocused not on political ends but rather on spiritual regenerationthrough his own sacrificial death (Mark 10:45).
Eschatologicalprophet.Many scholars claim that Jesus is best understood as a Jewishapocalypticist, an eschatological prophet who expected God tointervene in history, destroy the wicked, and bring in the kingdom ofGod. Central in this understanding are Jesus’ propheciesconcerning the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem (Matt. 24:1–2,15–22; Mark 13:1; Luke 21:5–24; John 2:19; Acts 6:14). Inaddition, it is noted that Jesus had twelve disciples, representativeof the twelve tribes of Israel (Matt. 19:2–28; Luke 22:23–30).Certain of Jesus’ parables, those with apocalyptic images ofcoming judgment, present Jesus as an eschatological prophet (Matt.24:45–25:30; Luke 12:41–46; 19:11–27).
SufferingSon of God.Jesus’ first recorded teaching in a synagogue in Nazareth wasparadigmatic (Luke 4:16–21). He attributed the reading, Isa.61:1–2, to his personal calling to serve, and in doing so herevealed a trajectory of suffering. The Gospel of Mark likewise aptlyportrays Jesus as the suffering Son of God. Jesus’ ownteachings incorporated his upcoming suffering (Mark 8:31; 9:12–13,31; 10:33–34). He summarized his mission by declaring, “TheSon of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give hislife as a ransom for many” (Mark 10:45). His earthly careerended with a trial in Jerusalem consisting of both Roman and Jewishcomponents (Matt. 26:57–68; 27:1–31; Mark 14:53–65;15:1–20; Luke 22:54–23:25; John 18:19–24;18:28–19:16). He was insulted, scourged, mocked, and crucified.
Jesus’suffering culminated in his humiliating death by crucifixion (Matt.27:33–50; Mark 15:22–37; Luke 23:33–46; John19:16–30). Crucifixion was a death of unimaginable horror,bringing shame and humiliation to the victim and his family. Anyonehanging on a tree was considered cursed (Deut. 21:23; Gal. 3:13).Thus, especially in a Jewish society, anyone associated with acrucified person bore the shame of following one who was executed asa lowly slave and left as a cursed corpse. The apostle Paul referredto this shame of the cross when he stated, “I am not ashamed ofthe gospel” (Rom. 1:16).
ExaltedLord.Jesus had prophesied that he would rise again (Matt. 16:21; 17:9, 23;20:19; 27:63; Mark 8:31; 9:9, 31; 10:34; Luke 9:22; 18:33; 24:7, 46).The testimony of the Synoptics is that the resurrection of JesusChrist indeed occurred on the third day, Christ having died on Friday(Mark 15:42–45; Luke 23:52–54; John 19:30–33) andrisen again on Sunday (Matt. 28:1–7; Mark 16:2–7; Luke24:1–7; John 20:1–16). The resurrected Jesus waswitnessed by the women (Matt. 28:8–9), the eleven disciples(Matt. 28:16–17; Luke 24:36–43), and travelers on theroad to Emmaus (Luke 24:31–32). According to Paul, he appearedto as many as five hundred others (1Cor. 15:6). He appeared inbodily form, spoke, showed his scars, and ate (Luke 24:39–43;John 20:27; Acts 1:4). After forty postresurrection days, Jesusascended into the heavenly realm (Acts 1:9).
Asmuch as Jesus’ death was the epitome of shame, his victory overdeath was his ultimate exaltation (Phil. 2:5–11). At Pentecost,Peter proclaimed that in the resurrection God fulfilled OT promises(Ps. 16:10) by raising his Son from the grave (Acts 2:30–31).Furthermore, Christ provided freedom from the law through hisresurrection (Rom. 5:13–14), God’s approval of his lifeand work (Phil. 2:8–9), and God’s designation of him asLord over all the earth, the living and the dead (Acts 17:30–31;Phil. 2:10; Heb. 1:3), and over all his enemies (Eph. 1:20–23).
Jesus’exaltation commenced the beginning of forgiveness and justification(Luke 24:46–47; Acts 13:30–39; Rom. 4:25) and hisintercession for the people of God (Rom. 8:34). His ascensionsignaled the coming of the Holy Spirit as comforter and teacher (John14:26; Acts 2:33) and was accompanied by the promise of his return inglory (Luke 24:51), at which time he will render judgment (Matt.19:28; 24:31; Rev. 20:11–15) and establish his eternal kingdom(1Cor. 15:24; 2Tim. 4:1; Rev. 11:15; 22:5).
Jesus’Purpose and Community
Inthe Gospel of Matthew, Jesus is the long-awaited Messiah, whopreaches the good news of the kingdom, urging people to repent(4:17–23). Repentance and belief allow one to enter thekingdom. The call into the kingdom is a call into a new covenant, onemade in Jesus’ blood (26:28).
Inthe prologue to the Gospel of Mark, the narrator reveals the identityof Jesus (1:1). Jesus is presented as the one who brings good tidingsof salvation (cf. Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 61:1). The centrality of thegospel, the good news (Mark 1:14–15), is evident.
Lukelikewise presents the preaching of the good news as a main purpose ofJesus’ ministry (4:43). The content of this good news is thekingdom of God (4:43; 8:1; 16:16). When the disciples of John theBaptist asked Jesus if he was the one who was to come (7:20), Jesusanswered, “Go back and report to John what you have seen andheard: The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosyare cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good newsis proclaimed to the poor” (7:22). The kingdom of God, aspresented in Luke, brings freedom for the prisoners, recovery ofsight for the blind, and release for the oppressed (4:18). Jesus’healings and exorcisms announce the coming kingdom of God alreadypresent in the ministry of Jesus (4:40–44; 6:18–20;8:1–2; 9:2; 10:8–9).
Inthe Gospel of John, Jesus testifies to the good news by way of signsthroughout his ministry. These signs point to Jesus’ glory, hisidentity, and the significance of his ministry. Jesus is the Messiah,the Son of God, who offers eternal and abundant life. This abundantlife is lived out in community.
Inthe Gospel of John, the disciples of Jesus represent the community ofGod (17:21). The disciples did not belong to the world, but theycontinued to live in the world (17:14–16). Throughout hisministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a callto loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38;Luke 9:23–26), a call to the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50;Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock Iwill build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call tocommunity. Jesus’ presence as the head of the community wasreplaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18).
Jesus’ministry continued in the community of Jesus’ followers, God’sfamily—the church. Entrance into the community was obtained byadopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and through theinitiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26;Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–62; John 1:12; 3:16;10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9).
TheQuests for the Historical Jesus
Thequest for the historical Jesus, or seeking who Jesus was from ahistorical perspective, is a modern phenomenon deemed necessary byscholars who claim that the NT Gospels were written long after Jesus’death and were heavily influenced by the post-Easter understanding ofthe church.
Thebeginning of this quest is often dated to 1770, when the lecturenotes of Hermann Samuel Reimarus were published posthumously.Reimarus had launched an inquiry into the identity of Jesus thatrejected as inauthentic all supernatural elements in the Gospels. Heconcluded that the disciples invented Jesus’ miracles,prophecies, ritualistic religion, and resurrection. Reimarus’sconclusions were not widely accepted, but they set off a flurry ofrationalistic research into the historical Jesus that continuedthroughout the nineteenth century. This became known as the “firstquest” for the historical Jesus.
In1906 German theologian Albert Schweit-zer published The Quest of theHistorical Jesus (German title: Von Reimarus zu Wrede: EineGeschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung), a scathing indictment of thefirst quest. Schweitzer’s work showed that nineteenth-centuryresearchers re-created Jesus in their own image, transforming thehistorical Jesus into a modern philanthropist preaching aninoffensive message of love and brotherhood. Schweitzer’sconclusions marked the beginning of the end for this first quest.Schweitzer himself concluded that the historical Jesus was aneschatological prophet whose purposes failed during his last days inJerusalem.
Withthe demise of the first quest, some NT scholars, such as RudolfBultmann, rejected any claim to being able to discover the historicalJesus. This trend continued until 1953, when some of Bultmann’sformer students launched what has come to be known as the “newquest” for the historical Jesus (1953–c. 1970). Thisquest created new interest in the historical Jesus but was stilldominated by the view that the portrait of Jesus in the Gospels islargely a creation of the church in a post-Easter setting.
Asthe rebuilding years of the post–World WarII era wanedand scholars started to reap academic fruit from major archaeologicalfinds such as the DSS, research on the historical Jesus moved on towhat has been called the “third quest.” This quest seeksespecially to research and understand Jesus in his social andcultural setting.
Laying hands on someone/something has two literal uses andtwo with symbolic significance. (1)Literally, to take something(e.g., Exod. 22:8–11; Esther 9:10–16; Matt. 26:51; Luke9:62) or someone—that is, to make an arrest (e.g., Neh. 13:21;Matt. 26:50; Mark 14:46; Luke 20:19; 21:12; 22:53; John 7:30, 44;Acts 4:3; 5:18; 12:1; 21:27). (2)Literally, to lay hands onpersons (or things) so as to hurt or destroy them (e.g., Gen. 22:12;37:22; 1Sam. 22:17; 24:5–13; 26:9–23; Job 1:12;9:33; Isa. 11:14; Jer. 15:6; Ezek. 39:21). (3)Laying a handover one’s mouth as a symbolic gesture of amazement (Mic. 7:16)or humility (Job 40:4). (4)A gesture to symbolize the transferof something from one person to another. Transfer symbolismapplications include the transfer of representative identity insacrificing (e.g., Exod. 29:10–19; Lev. 1:4; 16:21; Num.8:10–12; 2Chron. 29:23–24), of authority incommissioning (ordination) (e.g., Num. 27:18–23; Deut. 34:9;Acts 6:6; 13:3), of blessing (e.g., Gen. 48:13–20; Matt.19:13–15), of life and health (e.g., Matt. 8:3, 15; 9:18, 25,29; 20:34; Mark 6:5; 7:32–33; 8:22–26; 16:18; Luke 4:40;7:14; 13:13; 22:51; Acts 8:17; 9:12, 17; 28:8), and of the HolySpirit and spiritual gifting (Acts 8:17–19; 9:17; 19:6; 1Tim.4:14; 2Tim. 1:6).
Threeadditional things should be noted about this transfer symbolism.First, the laying on of hands is symbolic rather than purelycausative. This is evidenced when Jesus and the apostles creditfaith, and not mere touch, for healings (e.g., Matt. 9:22, 29–30;Luke 17:19; Acts 3:12–16; 14:9; cf. Matt. 13:58), when healingsoccur from a distance (e.g., Matt. 8:5–13; 15:21–28; John4:46–54) and/or with no apparent touch involved (e.g., Matt.8:28–34; 9:1–8, 32–33; 12:22; 17:14–21; Mark1:23–28; Luke 17:11–19; John 5:1–9; 11:1–44;Acts 5:15; 9:32–35, 40–41; 14:8–10; 16:18), whenthe Holy Spirit comes upon people without touch (e.g., Acts10:44–45), and when Peter strongly rebukes Simon Magus forassuming that the Holy Spirit is dispensed by mere touch (Acts8:17–24).
Second,the early church used the laying on of hands for commissioning churchworkers (Acts 6:6), missionaries (Acts 13:3),and elders (Acts 14:23 [the Greek word used for “appointing,”cheirotoneō, is derivedfrom the words for “extend,” teinō, and “hand,”cheir; cf. 2Cor. 8:19). Since the act was conducted by apostles(Acts 6:6), by prophets and teachers (Acts 13:1–3), byPaul and Barnabas (Acts 14:23; 2Tim. 1:6), and by church elders(1Tim. 4:14), we may conclude that the early church had noestablished hierarchy for ordination.
Third,the NT has some guidelines for commissioning Christian workers (cf.Heb. 6:2). Church leaders have weighty responsibilities (Acts 20:28;1Tim. 3:1–13; 5:17; Titus 1:5–9; 1Pet.5:1–4), so it is not surprising that a church elder/overseermust not be a recent convert (1Tim. 3:6) or hastily ordained(1Tim. 5:22), and that a deacon must first be tested (1Tim.3:10).
The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesusfollowers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christembodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in humanhistory.
Introduction
Name.Early Christians combined the name “Jesus” with the title“Christ” (Acts 5:42; NIV: “Messiah”). Thename “Jesus,” from the Hebrew Yehoshua or Yeshua, was acommon male name in first-century Judaism. The title “Christ”is from the Greek christos, a translation of the Hebrew mashiakh(“anointed one, messiah”). Christians eventually werenamed after Jesus’ title (Acts 11:26). During the ministry ofJesus, Peter was the first disciple to recognize Jesus as the Messiah(Matt. 16:16; Mark 9:29; Luke 9:20).
Sources.From the viewpoint of Christianity, the life and ministry of Jesusconstitute the turning point in human history. From a historicalperspective, ample early source materials would be expected. Indeed,both Christian and non-Christian first-century and earlysecond-century literary sources are extant, but they are few innumber. In part, this low incidence is due to society’s initialresistance to the Jesus followers’ movement. The ancient Romanhistorian Tacitus called Christianity “a superstition,”since its beliefs did not fit with the culture’s prevailingworldview and thus were considered antisocial. Early literary sourcestherefore are either in-group documents or allusions in non-Christiansources.
TheNT Gospels are the principal sources for the life and ministry ofJesus. They consist of Matthew, Mark, Luke (the Synoptic Gospels),and John. Most scholars adhere to the so-called Four SourceHypothesis. In this theory, Mark was written first and was used as asource by Matthew and Luke, who also used the sayings source Q (fromGerman Quelle, meaning “source”) as well as their ownindividual sources M (Matthew) and L (Luke). John used additionalsources.
Theearly church tried to put together singular accounts, so-calledGospel harmonies, of the life of Jesus. The Gospel of the Ebionitesrepresents one such attempt based on the Synoptic Gospels. Anotherharmony, the Diatessaron, based on all four Gospels, was producedaround AD 170 by Tatian. Additional source materials concerning thelife of Christ are provided in the NT in texts such as Acts, thePauline Epistles, the General Epistles, and the Revelation of John.Paul wrote to the Galatians, “But when the time had fully come,God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under law” (Gal. 4:4).The first narrative about Jesus by the Christian community was apassion narrative, the account of his death and resurrection. Thefirst extant references to this tradition are found in Paul’sletters (1Cor. 2:2; Gal. 3:1). The resurrection was recognizedfrom the beginning as the cornerstone of the Christian faith (1Cor.15:13–14).
Amongnon-Christian sources, the earliest reference to Jesus is found in aletter written circa AD 112 by Pliny the Younger, the Roman governorof Bithynia-Pontus (Ep. 10.96). The Roman historian Tacitus mentionsChristians and Jesus around AD 115 in his famous work about thehistory of Rome (Ann. 15.44). Another Roman historian, Suetonius,wrote around the same time concerning unrest among the Jews in Romebecause of a certain “Chrestos” (Claud. 25.4). Somescholars conclude that “Chrestos” is a misspelling of“Christos,” a reference to Jesus.
TheJewish author Josephus (first century AD) mentions Jesus in a storyabout the Jewish high priest Ananus and James the brother of Jesus(Ant. 20.200). A controversial reference to Jesus appears in adifferent part of the same work, where Josephus affirms that Jesus isthe Messiah and that he rose from the dead (Ant. 18.63–64). Themajority of scholars consider this passage to be authentic butheavily edited by later Christian copyists. Another Jewish source,the Talmud, also mentions Jesus in several places, but thesereferences are very late and of little historical value.
NoncanonicalGospels that mention Jesus include, for example, the Infancy Gospelof Thomas, the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Peter, the Gospel ofJames, the Gospel of Judas Iscariot, the Gospel of the Hebrews, theEgerton Gospel, and the Gospel of Judas. Although some of these maycontain an occasional authentic saying or event, for the most partthey are late and unreliable.
Jesus’Life
Birthand childhood. TheGospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehemduring the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesuswas probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’sdeath (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of avirginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18;Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governorQuirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place inBethlehem (2:1–5). Both the census and the governorship at thetime of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars.Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to eitherconfirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must bedetermined on the basis of one’s view regarding the generalreliability of the Gospel tradition.
Onthe eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keepingwith the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus”(Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home ofhis parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel ofLuke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth instrength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke alsocontains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).
Jesuswas born in a lower socioeconomic setting. His parents offered atemple sacrifice appropriate for those who could not afford tosacrifice a sheep (Luke 2:22–24; cf. Lev. 12:8). Joseph, Jesus’earthly father, was a carpenter or an artisan in wood, stone, ormetal (Matt. 13:55). From a geographical perspective, Nazareth wasnot a prominent place for settling, since it lacked fertile ground.Jesus’ disciple Nathanael expressed an apparently commonfirst-century sentiment concerning Nazareth: “Nazareth! Cananything good come from there?” (John 1:46).
Jesuswas also born in a context of scandal. Questions of illegitimacy weresurely raised, since his mother Mary was discovered to be pregnantbefore her marriage to Joseph. According to Matthew, only theintervention of an angel convinced Joseph not to break his betrothal(Matt. 1:18–24). Jesus’ birth took place in Bethlehem,far from his parents’ home in Nazareth. According to kinshiphospitality customs, Joseph and Mary would have expected to stay withdistant relatives in Bethlehem. It is likely that they were unwelcomebecause of Jesus’ status as an illegitimate child; thus Maryhad to give birth elsewhere and place the infant Jesus in a feedingtrough (Luke 2:7). A similar response was seen years later inNazareth when Jesus was identified as “Mary’s son”(Mark 6:3) rather than through his paternal line, thereby shaming himas one who was born an illegitimate child. Jesus was likewiserejected at the end of his life as the crowds cried, “Crucifyhim!” (Matt. 27:22–23; Mark 15:13–14; Luke 23:21;John 19:6, 15). When Jesus was arrested, most of his followers fled(Matt. 26:56; Mark 14:50–52), and a core disciple, Peter,vehemently denied knowing him (Matt. 26:69–74; Mark 14:66–71;Luke 22:55–60; John 18:15–17, 25–27). His ownsiblings did not believe in him (John 7:5) and were evidently ashamedof his fate, since from the cross Jesus placed the care of his motherinto the hands of “the disciple whom he loved” (19:26–27)rather than the next brother in line, as was customary.
Baptism,temptation, and start of ministry.After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring tohim as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22).Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instantministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into thewilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11;Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that thetemptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Lukeidentify three specific temptations by the devil, though their orderfor the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesuswas tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine interventionafter jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’skingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation,quoting Scripture in response.
Matthewand Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum inGalilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13;Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirtyyears of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity orperhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of theLevites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning ofJesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples andthe sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).
Jesus’public ministry: chronology.Jesus’ ministry started in Galilee, probably around AD 27/28,and ended with his death around AD 30 in Jerusalem. The temple hadbeen forty-six years in construction (generally interpreted as thetemple itself and the wider temple complex) when Jesus drove out themoney changers (John 2:20). According to Josephus, the rebuilding andexpansion of the second temple had started in 20/19 BC, during theeighteenth year of Herod’s reign (Ant. 15.380). The ministry ofJohn the Baptist had commenced in the fifteenth year of Tiberius(Luke 3:1–2), who had become a coregent in AD 11/12. From thesedates of the start of the temple building and the correlation of thereign of Tiberius to John the Baptist’s ministry, the onset ofJesus’ ministry can probably be dated to AD 27/28.
TheGospel of John mentions three Passovers and another unnamed feast inJohn 5:1. The length of Jesus’ ministry thus extended overthree or four Passovers, equaling about three or three and a halfyears. Passover, which took place on the fifteenth of Nisan, came ona Friday in AD 30 and 33. The year of Jesus’ death wastherefore probably AD 30.
Jesus’ministry years may be divided broadly into his Galilean and hisJudean ministries. The Synoptic Gospels describe the ministry inGalilee from various angles but converge again as Jesus enters Judea.
Galileanministry.The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and aroundGalilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that thekingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment ofprophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ firstteaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30);the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for hiscalling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection andsuffering.
AllGospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in hisGalilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioningof the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers isrecorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministryis the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, inparticular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synopticsfocus on healings and exorcisms.
DuringJesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with hisidentity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority(Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family(3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner ofBeelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesustold parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growingkingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humblebeginnings (4:1–32).
TheSynoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful.No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority orability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized manydemons (Mark 5:1–13), raised the dead (Mark 5:35–42), fedfive thousand (Mark 6:30–44), and walked on water (Mark6:48–49).
Inthe later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew andtraveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are notwritten with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns toGalilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey toJerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fearresolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee,where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ discipleswith lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed thePharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents(7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demandinga sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, whoconfessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus didprovide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).
Jesuswithdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician womanrequested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sentonly to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans hadlong resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality thatallotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere“crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Eventhe dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,”Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-muteman in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’sconfession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The citywas the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.
Judeanministry.Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry ashe resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually ledto his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem intothree phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27).The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of thejourney. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, andthe demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem(Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45;Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journeytoward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvationand judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase ofthe journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are themain themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).
Socialconflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposteinteractions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel(Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomicfeathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who hadlittle value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16;Luke 18:15–17).
PassionWeek, death, and resurrection. Eachof the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with thecrowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Lukedescribes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during whichJesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).
InJerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17).Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because thewhole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “beganlooking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segmentof Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions(12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation(12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s owndestruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, JudasIscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’arrest (14:10–11).
Atthe Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a newcovenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29;Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned thedisciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and laterhe prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agonyand submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42;Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial,crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15;Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18).Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission bymaking disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8)and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return(Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).
TheIdentity of Jesus Christ
Variousaspects of Jesus’ identity are stressed in the four NT Gospels,depending on their target audiences. In the Gospels the witnesses toJesus’ ministry are portrayed as constantly questioning andexamining his identity (Matt. 11:2–5; 12:24; 26:63; 27:11; Mark3:22; 8:11; 11:28; 14:61; Luke 7:18–20; 11:15; 22:67, 70;23:39; John 7:20, 25–27; 18:37). Only beings of the spiritualrealm are certain of his divinity (Mark 1:34; 3:11; Luke 4:41). AtJesus’ baptism, God referred to him as his Son, whom he loved(Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Likewise, when Jesus wastransfigured in the presence of Peter, James, and John, a voiceaffirmed, “This is my Son, whom I love” (Matt. 17:5; Mark9:7). At the moment of his death, the questioning of Jesus’identity culminated in a confession by a Roman centurion and otherguards: “Surely he was the Son of God!” (Matt. 27:54; cf.Mark 15:39).
Miracleworker.In the first-century setting, folk healers and miracle workers werepart of the fabric of society. Jesus, however, performed signs andmiracles in order to demonstrate the authority of the kingdom of Godover various realms: disease, illness, the spiritual world, nature,and even future events. Especially in the Gospel of John, Jesus’signs and miracles are used to show his authority and thus hisidentity.
Nochallenge superseded Jesus’ authority. Among his ample miraclesand signs, he changed water into wine (John 2:7–9), calmed astorm in the sea (Matt. 8:23–27; Mark 4:35–39; Luke8:22–25), exorcized demons (Matt. 9:32–34; Mark 5:1–13;Luke 9:42–43), healed the sick (Mark 1:40–44), raised thedead (Matt. 9:23–25; Mark 5:35–42; Luke 7:1–16;8:49–54; John 11:17, 38–44), performed miraculousfeedings (Matt. 14:17–21; 15:34–38; Mark 6:30–44;8:5–9; Luke 9:10–17; John 6:8–13), and walked onwater (Matt. 14:25–26; Mark 6:48–49; John 6:19).
ThePharisees requested miracles as evidence of his authority (Mark8:11–12). Jesus refused, claiming that a wicked and adulterousgeneration asks for a miraculous sign (Matt. 12:38–39; 16:1–4).The only sign that he would give was the sign of Jonah—hisdeath and resurrection three days later—a personal sacrifice,taking upon himself the judgment of the world (Matt. 12:39–41).
Rabbi/teacher.Jesus’ teaching style was similar to other first-century rabbisor Pharisees (Mark 9:5; 10:51; John 1:38; 3:2). What distinguishedhim was that he spoke with great personal authority (Matt. 5:22, 28,32, 39, 44; Mark 1:22). Like other rabbis of his day, Jesus gathereddisciples. He called these men to observe his lifestyle and to joinhim in his ministry of teaching, healing, and exorcism (Matt. 10:1–4;Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16).
Jesusused a variety of teaching methods. He frequently spoke in parables(Matt. 6:24; 13:24–52; 18:10–14, 23–35;21:28–22:14; 24:32–36, 45–51; 25:14–30; Mark4:1–34; 12:1–12; 13:28–34; Luke 8:4–18;12:41–46; 13:18–21; 14:15–24; 15:1–16:15,19–31; 18:1–14; 19:11–27; 20:9–19; 21:29–33),used figures of speech (John 10:9), hyperbole (Matt. 19:24; Mark10:25; Luke 18:25), argumentation (Matt. 26:11), object lessons(Matt. 24:32), frequent repetition (Matt. 13:44–47; Luke13:18–21), practical examples, and personal guidance.
Majorthemes in Jesus’ teaching include the kingdom of God, the costof discipleship, internal righteousness, the end of the age, hisidentity, his mission, and his approaching death. In his teachings,observance of Torah was given new context and meaning because God’skingdom had “come near” (Matt. 3:2). Jesus had come tofulfill the law (Matt. 5:17).
Jesus’teaching ministry often took place amid social conflict. Theseconflicts were couched in so-called challenge-riposte interactions inwhich the honor status of those involved was at stake. Jesus usedthese interactions as teachable moments. When questioned, Jesus gavereplies that reveal omniscience or intimate knowledge of God’swill, especially in the Gospel of John. In the Synoptic Gospels,Jesus’ answers are both ethical and practical in nature. TheSynoptics portray Jesus as challenged repeatedly with accusations ofviolating customs specified in the Jewish law. Jesus’ answersto such accusations often echoed the essence of 1Sam. 15:22,“To obey is better than sacrifice,” phrased by Jesus as“I desire mercy, not sacrifice” (Matt. 9:13; 12:7). Anoverall “better than” ethic was common in Jesus’public teaching.
TheSermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7) contains a “better than”ethic in which internal obedience is better than mere outwardobedience. For example, Jesus said that anger without cause is equalto murder (Matt. 5:21–22), that looking at a woman lustfullyamounts to adultery (Matt. 5:28), and that instead of revengingwrongs one must reciprocate with love (Matt. 5:38–48). Jesusvalued compassion above traditions and customs, even those containedwithin the OT law. He desired internal obedience above the letter ofthe law.
Jesus’teachings found their authority in the reality of God’simminent kingdom (Matt. 3:2; 10:7; Mark 1:15; Luke 10:9),necessitating repentance (Matt. 3:2), belief (Mark 1:15), dependence(Matt. 18:3–5; Mark 10:15), and loyalty to a new community—thefamily of Jesus followers (Mark 3:34; 10:29–30). Jesus urged,“Seek first [God’s] kingdom and his righteousness”(Matt. 6:33). Preaching with such urgency was common among propheticteachers of the intertestamental period. Jesus, however, had his owngrounds for urgency. He held that God deeply valued all humans (Matt.10:31) and would bring judgment swiftly (Matt. 25:31–46).
Examplesof a “greater good” ethic in the Synoptics include theoccasions when Jesus ate with sinners (Mark 2:16–17). Jesusused an aphorism in response to accusations about his associationswith sinners, saying, “It is not the healthy who need a doctor,but the sick. I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners”(Mark 2:17). He advocated harvesting and healing on the Sabbath (Mark2:23–28; 3:1–6), and when he was accused of breaking thelaw, he pointed to an OT exception (1Sam. 21:1–6) todeclare compassion appropriate for the Sabbath. Jesus also appliedthe “greater good” ethic in the case of divorce, sincewomen suffered the societal stigma of adultery and commonly becameoutcasts following divorce (Matt. 19:8–9; Mark 10:5–9).
Jesus’kingdom teachings were simultaneously spiritual, ethical, andeschatological in application. The teachings were aimed at internaltransformation (Matt. 5:3–9; 18:3; Mark 10:15) and spurring onlove (Matt. 5:44; 7:21). The Spirit of the Lord had called Jesus tobless the hurting ones as they aspired to a godly character. Jesustaught, “Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father isperfect” (Matt. 5:48), and “Be merciful, just as yourFather is merciful” (Luke 6:36). The “blessed” onesin Jesus’ teachings are poor of spirit, peace driven, mournful,and hungry for righteousness, consumed with emulating godlycharacter.
Somescholars believe that Jesus promoted an “interim ethic”for the kingdom, intended only for a short period prior to the end oftime. However, he was explicit regarding the longevity of histeachings: “Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words willnever pass away” (Matt. 24:35; Luke 16:17).
Messiah.The concept of an anointed one, a messiah, who would restore theglories of David’s kingdom and bring political stability wascommon in Jewish expectation. Both before and after the Babyloniancaptivity, many Jews longed for one who would bring peace andprotection. Israel’s prophets had spoken of a coming deliverer,one who would restore David’s kingdom and reign in justice andrighteousness (2Sam. 7:11–16; Isa. 9:1–7; 11:1–16;Jer. 23:5–6; 33:15–16; Ezek. 37:25; Dan. 2:44; Mic. 5:2;Zech. 9:9). Isaiah’s description of the servant (Isa. 53) whosesuffering healed the nation provided a slightly different angle ofexpectation in terms of a deliverer.
Jesus’authority and popularity as a miracle worker called up messianicimages in first-century Jewish minds. On several occasions hearerscalled him “Son of David,” hoping for the Messiah (Matt.12:23; 21:9). Simon Peter was the first follower who confessed Jesusas the Christ, the “Messiah” (Matt. 16:16; Mark 8:29). Inline with Isaiah’s model of the Suffering Servant, Jesusfocused not on political ends but rather on spiritual regenerationthrough his own sacrificial death (Mark 10:45).
Eschatologicalprophet.Many scholars claim that Jesus is best understood as a Jewishapocalypticist, an eschatological prophet who expected God tointervene in history, destroy the wicked, and bring in the kingdom ofGod. Central in this understanding are Jesus’ propheciesconcerning the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem (Matt. 24:1–2,15–22; Mark 13:1; Luke 21:5–24; John 2:19; Acts 6:14). Inaddition, it is noted that Jesus had twelve disciples, representativeof the twelve tribes of Israel (Matt. 19:2–28; Luke 22:23–30).Certain of Jesus’ parables, those with apocalyptic images ofcoming judgment, present Jesus as an eschatological prophet (Matt.24:45–25:30; Luke 12:41–46; 19:11–27).
SufferingSon of God.Jesus’ first recorded teaching in a synagogue in Nazareth wasparadigmatic (Luke 4:16–21). He attributed the reading, Isa.61:1–2, to his personal calling to serve, and in doing so herevealed a trajectory of suffering. The Gospel of Mark likewise aptlyportrays Jesus as the suffering Son of God. Jesus’ ownteachings incorporated his upcoming suffering (Mark 8:31; 9:12–13,31; 10:33–34). He summarized his mission by declaring, “TheSon of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give hislife as a ransom for many” (Mark 10:45). His earthly careerended with a trial in Jerusalem consisting of both Roman and Jewishcomponents (Matt. 26:57–68; 27:1–31; Mark 14:53–65;15:1–20; Luke 22:54–23:25; John 18:19–24;18:28–19:16). He was insulted, scourged, mocked, and crucified.
Jesus’suffering culminated in his humiliating death by crucifixion (Matt.27:33–50; Mark 15:22–37; Luke 23:33–46; John19:16–30). Crucifixion was a death of unimaginable horror,bringing shame and humiliation to the victim and his family. Anyonehanging on a tree was considered cursed (Deut. 21:23; Gal. 3:13).Thus, especially in a Jewish society, anyone associated with acrucified person bore the shame of following one who was executed asa lowly slave and left as a cursed corpse. The apostle Paul referredto this shame of the cross when he stated, “I am not ashamed ofthe gospel” (Rom. 1:16).
ExaltedLord.Jesus had prophesied that he would rise again (Matt. 16:21; 17:9, 23;20:19; 27:63; Mark 8:31; 9:9, 31; 10:34; Luke 9:22; 18:33; 24:7, 46).The testimony of the Synoptics is that the resurrection of JesusChrist indeed occurred on the third day, Christ having died on Friday(Mark 15:42–45; Luke 23:52–54; John 19:30–33) andrisen again on Sunday (Matt. 28:1–7; Mark 16:2–7; Luke24:1–7; John 20:1–16). The resurrected Jesus waswitnessed by the women (Matt. 28:8–9), the eleven disciples(Matt. 28:16–17; Luke 24:36–43), and travelers on theroad to Emmaus (Luke 24:31–32). According to Paul, he appearedto as many as five hundred others (1Cor. 15:6). He appeared inbodily form, spoke, showed his scars, and ate (Luke 24:39–43;John 20:27; Acts 1:4). After forty postresurrection days, Jesusascended into the heavenly realm (Acts 1:9).
Asmuch as Jesus’ death was the epitome of shame, his victory overdeath was his ultimate exaltation (Phil. 2:5–11). At Pentecost,Peter proclaimed that in the resurrection God fulfilled OT promises(Ps. 16:10) by raising his Son from the grave (Acts 2:30–31).Furthermore, Christ provided freedom from the law through hisresurrection (Rom. 5:13–14), God’s approval of his lifeand work (Phil. 2:8–9), and God’s designation of him asLord over all the earth, the living and the dead (Acts 17:30–31;Phil. 2:10; Heb. 1:3), and over all his enemies (Eph. 1:20–23).
Jesus’exaltation commenced the beginning of forgiveness and justification(Luke 24:46–47; Acts 13:30–39; Rom. 4:25) and hisintercession for the people of God (Rom. 8:34). His ascensionsignaled the coming of the Holy Spirit as comforter and teacher (John14:26; Acts 2:33) and was accompanied by the promise of his return inglory (Luke 24:51), at which time he will render judgment (Matt.19:28; 24:31; Rev. 20:11–15) and establish his eternal kingdom(1Cor. 15:24; 2Tim. 4:1; Rev. 11:15; 22:5).
Jesus’Purpose and Community
Inthe Gospel of Matthew, Jesus is the long-awaited Messiah, whopreaches the good news of the kingdom, urging people to repent(4:17–23). Repentance and belief allow one to enter thekingdom. The call into the kingdom is a call into a new covenant, onemade in Jesus’ blood (26:28).
Inthe prologue to the Gospel of Mark, the narrator reveals the identityof Jesus (1:1). Jesus is presented as the one who brings good tidingsof salvation (cf. Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 61:1). The centrality of thegospel, the good news (Mark 1:14–15), is evident.
Lukelikewise presents the preaching of the good news as a main purpose ofJesus’ ministry (4:43). The content of this good news is thekingdom of God (4:43; 8:1; 16:16). When the disciples of John theBaptist asked Jesus if he was the one who was to come (7:20), Jesusanswered, “Go back and report to John what you have seen andheard: The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosyare cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good newsis proclaimed to the poor” (7:22). The kingdom of God, aspresented in Luke, brings freedom for the prisoners, recovery ofsight for the blind, and release for the oppressed (4:18). Jesus’healings and exorcisms announce the coming kingdom of God alreadypresent in the ministry of Jesus (4:40–44; 6:18–20;8:1–2; 9:2; 10:8–9).
Inthe Gospel of John, Jesus testifies to the good news by way of signsthroughout his ministry. These signs point to Jesus’ glory, hisidentity, and the significance of his ministry. Jesus is the Messiah,the Son of God, who offers eternal and abundant life. This abundantlife is lived out in community.
Inthe Gospel of John, the disciples of Jesus represent the community ofGod (17:21). The disciples did not belong to the world, but theycontinued to live in the world (17:14–16). Throughout hisministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a callto loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38;Luke 9:23–26), a call to the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50;Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock Iwill build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call tocommunity. Jesus’ presence as the head of the community wasreplaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18).
Jesus’ministry continued in the community of Jesus’ followers, God’sfamily—the church. Entrance into the community was obtained byadopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and through theinitiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26;Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–62; John 1:12; 3:16;10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9).
TheQuests for the Historical Jesus
Thequest for the historical Jesus, or seeking who Jesus was from ahistorical perspective, is a modern phenomenon deemed necessary byscholars who claim that the NT Gospels were written long after Jesus’death and were heavily influenced by the post-Easter understanding ofthe church.
Thebeginning of this quest is often dated to 1770, when the lecturenotes of Hermann Samuel Reimarus were published posthumously.Reimarus had launched an inquiry into the identity of Jesus thatrejected as inauthentic all supernatural elements in the Gospels. Heconcluded that the disciples invented Jesus’ miracles,prophecies, ritualistic religion, and resurrection. Reimarus’sconclusions were not widely accepted, but they set off a flurry ofrationalistic research into the historical Jesus that continuedthroughout the nineteenth century. This became known as the “firstquest” for the historical Jesus.
In1906 German theologian Albert Schweit-zer published The Quest of theHistorical Jesus (German title: Von Reimarus zu Wrede: EineGeschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung), a scathing indictment of thefirst quest. Schweitzer’s work showed that nineteenth-centuryresearchers re-created Jesus in their own image, transforming thehistorical Jesus into a modern philanthropist preaching aninoffensive message of love and brotherhood. Schweitzer’sconclusions marked the beginning of the end for this first quest.Schweitzer himself concluded that the historical Jesus was aneschatological prophet whose purposes failed during his last days inJerusalem.
Withthe demise of the first quest, some NT scholars, such as RudolfBultmann, rejected any claim to being able to discover the historicalJesus. This trend continued until 1953, when some of Bultmann’sformer students launched what has come to be known as the “newquest” for the historical Jesus (1953–c. 1970). Thisquest created new interest in the historical Jesus but was stilldominated by the view that the portrait of Jesus in the Gospels islargely a creation of the church in a post-Easter setting.
Asthe rebuilding years of the post–World WarII era wanedand scholars started to reap academic fruit from major archaeologicalfinds such as the DSS, research on the historical Jesus moved on towhat has been called the “third quest.” This quest seeksespecially to research and understand Jesus in his social andcultural setting.
The historical origins of Christianity need to be set against Jewish history, beliefs, and culture in Palestine and the eastern Mediterranean, but they also need to be set in the context of the wider Greco-Roman world that was dominated politically and militarily by the Roman Empire.
From Republic to Empire
Rome began as a city-state but soon became a transcontinental empire reaching over parts of Europe, Africa, and Asia. Rome emerged as the most dominant force in the Mediterranean after it defeated Carthage in the Second Punic War (218–201 BC). Thereafter, Rome began to expand its control and power over the various Hellenistic city-states in the east, including Macedonia, Illyria, and Asia Minor. By the mid-first century AD, Rome had also conquered or annexed Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Cyrene, Gaul, Spain, North Africa, and Armenia.
The transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire took place under the Roman emperors beginning with Julius Caesar (100–44 BC), who, after crossing the Rubicon and defeating Pompey, was proclaimed dictator perpetuus (“dictator for life”). The period after Julius Caesar’s assassination (44 BC) was a time of political upheaval as Rome was marred by a series of civil wars. The first was between Octavius and Antony against Caesar’s assassins Brutus and Cassius. This climaxed in the Battle of Philippi (42 BC), which the former allies of Julius Caesar won. The second was between Octavius and Antony, where Antony and Cleopatra were defeated at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, leaving Octavius as the undisputed leader of Rome.
Octavius was given the honorific name “Augustus” by the senate. His reign (31 BC–AD 14) marked a period of consolidation, reorganization, and renewal of the Roman Empire. Augustus embarked on an empire-wide policy of fiscal rationalization, developed a constitutional settlement for Rome, centralized his military authority over the various provinces, and had Julius Caesar deified. Writers and artists of the era heralded Augustus’s reign as a time of unprecedented peace and security—peace from civil war and security from the Germanic tribes in the north and the Parthian Empire in the east. Worship of the emperor became more frequent especially in the Roman East, although Augustus did not permit it in Rome. What is most significant about Augustus is that it is with his reign that the Roman Empire essentially began. He was the emperor at the time of Jesus’ birth (Luke 2:1). It was under Trajan (AD 98–117), however, that the Roman Empire expanded to its largest area, encompassing parts of Britain and Persia.
Emperors (AD 14–98)
Tiberius, Augustus’s adopted heir, reigned in the years AD 14–37. He was a highly successful military general, but as emperor he was remembered as being gloomy and melancholic. Tiberius even went into a self-imposed exile for a time, leaving the praetorian prefect Sejanus in charge until Tiberius finally had him executed for treason. It was during the reign of Tiberius that Jesus conducted his ministry in Palestine.
Tiberius was succeeded by his adopted grandson Caligula, who reigned in the years AD 37–41. Caligula was the son of the popular Roman general Germanicus, who died in Antioch in AD 19. Historical sources are not favorably disposed toward Caligula, who was remembered as a malevolent tyrant given to self-aggrandizement and sexual perversity. In AD 39/40 Caligula departed from imperial policy that permitted emperor worship in the east and veneration of deceased emperors in Rome, and he often appeared dressed as a god in public and demanded worship as a living god. During this time he deposed Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, on suspicion of consorting with Parthia (Josephus, Ant. 18.7). Caligula also ordered that his statue be placed in the holy of holies in the Jerusalem temple (Philo, Embassy 203). Petronius, the governor of Syria, knowing that such an act would lead to civil war, refused to comply and appealed to Caligula to reverse the order. In response, Caligula sent an order to Petronius that he commit suicide. Fortunately, news of Caligula’s assassination by a conspiracy involving the praetorian guard and senators reached Petronius first.
Claudius, Caligula’s uncle, reigned in the years AD 41–54, and his rule was defined by numerous public works, a reordering of the judicial system, a torrid series of marriages, the conquest of Britain, and a number of attempted coups by the Roman senate. In AD 49 he expelled the Jews from Rome because of disputes about a certain “Chrestus,” probably Christ (cf. Acts 18:2). No one is sure whether Claudius was murdered or died of old age, but he remained a sharp contrast to the brutal excesses of Caligula and Nero.
Nero, the stepson of Claudius, reigned in the years AD 54–68. The early period of his rule was marked by cultural endeavors and diplomatic efforts. The later years were, in contrast, distinguished by tyranny and self-aggrandizement. There was a Jewish revolt against Rome in Judea (AD 66–70) during Nero’s reign, and Vespasian was sent to pacify the territory. According to ancient sources, Nero accused Christians of starting the fire of Rome in AD 64 and subjected them to the cruelest of punishments, including crucifixion, being thrown to wild animals, and even being burned alive. It probably was during this time that the apostles Peter and Paul were martyred in Rome. Nero eventually was declared a public enemy by the Roman senate, and he committed suicide before he could be captured in AD 68. There arose a “Nero redivivus” legend, whereby many hoped or feared that Nero had not died in AD 68 but had fled to Parthia and would return to Rome in order to destroy it (Sib.Or. 4.119–124; 5.137–141, 361–396), and this arguably stands behind the imagery of Rev. 13:3; 17:8–11.
The suicide of Nero left a power vacuum in Rome, and AD 69 saw no less than four emperors ascend the throne: Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and finally Vespasian. Galba was governor of Hispania Tarraconensis and was invited to become emperor by the senate, but he was killed by the praetorian guard after they were bribed by the praetor Otho. Otho himself committed suicide after his forces were defeated by Vitellius, the commander of the legions on the Rhine. Vitellius became emperor, but he was fiscally irresponsible and murdered many of his rivals. The legions in the Danube, Egypt, Syria, and Judea had declared Vespasian emperor and marched on Rome. Vespasian controlled the grain supplies to Rome from Egypt and had a superior force. Vitellius’s forces were defeated at Bedriacum, and Vitellius went into hiding but eventually was killed in Rome. Vespasian was declared emperor by the senate, and so began the Flavian dynasty, which restored order after the chaos of civil war.
The Flavians ruled in the years AD 69–96. Vespasian (r. AD 69–79) consolidated the empire after its year of strife and instituted new taxes, such as the fiscus judaicus, a war reparation tax placed on all Jews and paid to the temple of Jupiter in lieu of the Jerusalem temple tax. Vespasian was succeeded by his sons Titus (r.AD 79–81) and Domitian (r. AD 81–96). When Vespasian sailed to Rome from Judea, Titus was left in charge of the siege of Jerusalem, which he completed and celebrated in a triumph in Rome in AD 72. This triumph is memorialized in the Arch of Titus, which depicts Roman soldiers bringing the vessels of the temple to Rome as part of the booty taken. Later Roman writers regarded Domitian as a malevolent and malicious tyrant (e.g., Tacitus, Suetonius), but this probably is an exaggeration caused partly by a desire to highlight the greatness of succeeding emperors such as Nerva and Trajan. It probably was during the reign of Domitian that some Christians in Asia Minor were being persecuted for their failure to worship the emperor, as depicted in the book of Revelation.
Table 7. Roman Emperors (31 BC–AD 117)
31 BC-AD 14 – Augustus
AD 14-37 – Tiberius
AD 37-41 – Caligula
AD 41-54 – Claudius
AD 54-68 – Nero
AD 68-69 – Galba
AD 69 – Otho
AD 69 – Vitellius
AD 69-79 – Vespasian
AD 79-81 – Titus
AD 81-96 – Domitian
AD 96-98 – Nerva
AD 98-117 – Trajan
Military
Military expeditions expanded Rome’s control of foreign territories and safeguarded its borders from incursion, most threateningly from the Germanic tribes east of the Rhine River and north of the Danube River and from the Parthian (=Neo-Persian) Empire east of the Euphrates River. A Roman legion consisted of around six thousand men, including cavalry. Under Tiberius, there were twenty-five legions stationed across the empire: eight on the Rhine, three in Spain, two in Egypt, four in Syria, two in Africa, and six in the Danube region. In terms of command structures, the legions were under the control of certain regional commands by men of consular rank, including two on the Rhine, one in Spain, one in Syria, and three in the Balkans (Tacitus, Ann. 4.5). These were among the most powerful persons outside the ruling family and could be kingmakers or contenders during times of civil war. A legion was divided into ten cohorts and commanded by a legate, usually of senatorial rank. Units of one hundred were commanded by centurions, and service in the legions was set at between twenty and twenty-five years. Upon recruitment, the soldier swore an oath of loyalty to the emperor (sacramentum) that was renewed annually. During times of peace, Roman soldiers could perform a number of civil tasks relating to taxation, building projects, and policing.
Centurions are mentioned several times in the NT (e.g., Matt. 8:5; Mark 15:39; Acts 10:1; 21:32; 27:1). There is a mention of a “legion” of demons that oppressed the Gerasene demoniac (Mark 5:9), and Jesus refers to the possibility of the Father sending him “legions” of angels (Matt. 26:53). Military terminology is very apparent in Paul’s letters, where he refers to fighting armor (Rom. 13:11–13; 2Cor. 6:7; Eph. 6:10–18), compares commitment to Christ to military service (2Tim. 2:4), refers to his coworkers as “soldiers” or “fellow soldiers” (Phil. 2:25; Philem. 2; 2Tim. 2:3), and likens ministerial remuneration to a soldier being paid his salarium (1Cor. 9:7).
Culture and Religion
One of the primary reasons for Rome’s rise and dominance, militarily and culturally, was its capacity to absorb other peoples and even other gods into its constituency and pantheon. Its constantly growing pantheon, application of the rule of law, and superior military force made Rome what it was: a melting pot of all cultures and a Romanizer of other cultures.
Roman society was heavily stratified, but social mobility, upward and downward, was possible. Wealth, marriage, education, and military exploits were the primary means to social advancement. The senatorial class represented the wealthy nobility of Rome and provided the primary cohort of civil and military administrators. The equestrian class (or “knights,” as they are sometimes called) were a larger group of less wealthy Roman citizens. Decurions were members of civil councils in provincial cities who often acted as magistrates and were leaders of local communities. The plebeians represented the general citizenry of Rome, who, until the time of Tiberius, had some power in electing officials. Finally, there were freedmen, who were ex-slaves usually in a relationship with their former master, and also slaves, who were regarded as little more than property.
The ancient Roman religions focused on the numen, the somewhat impersonal divine power associated with certain localities. From the third century BC, Greek deities were assimilated and Romanized, so that Zeus became Jupiter, and Vesta was identified as Hestia. The Capitoline Hill was crowned with a temple that was dedicated around 500 BC to Jupiter, Minerva, and Juno. These were the principal gods of Rome, although others were added to the pantheon as the Romans conquered other peoples and adopted their gods. Other gods also received greater honor, such as the goddess Pax, the personification of peace (based on the Greek goddess Eirene); Vespasian built and dedicated a temple in her honor in Rome in AD 75. The Roman emperor was the Pontifex Maximus and supreme high priest of Rome and the empire. In the mid- to late first century AD, the fastest-growing religion was the imperial cult, the worship of (usually) deceased Roman emperors. This cult became popular in the eastern Mediterranean cities, where worship of rulers was commonplace, but was regarded with indifference in Rome.
Religions and philosophies from all over the known world eventually made their way to Rome. Egyptian rites and religions gained followings, Mithraism acquired currency within the ranks of the military and among public servants, Judaism entered Rome probably with the Hasmonean delegation sent there around 139 BC, and Christianity came to Rome probably during the late 30s and early 40s of the first century AD through Jewish pilgrims visiting the east and through Judean immigration to Rome. Many Roman intellectuals lamented the fact that so many foreign superstitions had found their way to Rome, and that Roman peoples found them more attractive than their own state religion. Roman religion was largely controlled by the state through a set calendar and the appointment of priests and vestal virgins. It was practiced in public and in the home. As such, religious life was very much intertwined with social and political life. Roman religion engendered the need for its citizens to act with pietas, the honoring of one’s obligations to the gods, and with religio, which designated appropriate scruples and rites in the presence of the gods.
Summary
The birth of the church and the growth of Christianity took place within the wider social, religious, and cultural context of the Greco-Roman world. The politics and power of the Roman Empire provide the backdrop for the birth of Jesus (Luke 2:1), and since Rome was considered to be the center of the world, it was necessary that Paul himself testify to Jesus Christ there (Acts 19:21). The history, literature, and cultural background of Rome form an important background to the NT and should be studied along with the history and literature of Judaism during the time of Jesus and the apostles. Although the Romans were the primary threat to the survival of Christians in the ancient world, after the conversion of Constantine in the fourth century AD, they became the primary means by which Christianity spread to the rest of Europe and western Asia. See also Roman Law.
The historical origins of Christianity need to be set against Jewish history, beliefs, and culture in Palestine and the eastern Mediterranean, but they also need to be set in the context of the wider Greco-Roman world that was dominated politically and militarily by the Roman Empire.
From Republic to Empire
Rome began as a city-state but soon became a transcontinental empire reaching over parts of Europe, Africa, and Asia. Rome emerged as the most dominant force in the Mediterranean after it defeated Carthage in the Second Punic War (218–201 BC). Thereafter, Rome began to expand its control and power over the various Hellenistic city-states in the east, including Macedonia, Illyria, and Asia Minor. By the mid-first century AD, Rome had also conquered or annexed Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Cyrene, Gaul, Spain, North Africa, and Armenia.
The transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire took place under the Roman emperors beginning with Julius Caesar (100–44 BC), who, after crossing the Rubicon and defeating Pompey, was proclaimed dictator perpetuus (“dictator for life”). The period after Julius Caesar’s assassination (44 BC) was a time of political upheaval as Rome was marred by a series of civil wars. The first was between Octavius and Antony against Caesar’s assassins Brutus and Cassius. This climaxed in the Battle of Philippi (42 BC), which the former allies of Julius Caesar won. The second was between Octavius and Antony, where Antony and Cleopatra were defeated at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, leaving Octavius as the undisputed leader of Rome.
Octavius was given the honorific name “Augustus” by the senate. His reign (31 BC–AD 14) marked a period of consolidation, reorganization, and renewal of the Roman Empire. Augustus embarked on an empire-wide policy of fiscal rationalization, developed a constitutional settlement for Rome, centralized his military authority over the various provinces, and had Julius Caesar deified. Writers and artists of the era heralded Augustus’s reign as a time of unprecedented peace and security—peace from civil war and security from the Germanic tribes in the north and the Parthian Empire in the east. Worship of the emperor became more frequent especially in the Roman East, although Augustus did not permit it in Rome. What is most significant about Augustus is that it is with his reign that the Roman Empire essentially began. He was the emperor at the time of Jesus’ birth (Luke 2:1). It was under Trajan (AD 98–117), however, that the Roman Empire expanded to its largest area, encompassing parts of Britain and Persia.
Emperors (AD 14–98)
Tiberius, Augustus’s adopted heir, reigned in the years AD 14–37. He was a highly successful military general, but as emperor he was remembered as being gloomy and melancholic. Tiberius even went into a self-imposed exile for a time, leaving the praetorian prefect Sejanus in charge until Tiberius finally had him executed for treason. It was during the reign of Tiberius that Jesus conducted his ministry in Palestine.
Tiberius was succeeded by his adopted grandson Caligula, who reigned in the years AD 37–41. Caligula was the son of the popular Roman general Germanicus, who died in Antioch in AD 19. Historical sources are not favorably disposed toward Caligula, who was remembered as a malevolent tyrant given to self-aggrandizement and sexual perversity. In AD 39/40 Caligula departed from imperial policy that permitted emperor worship in the east and veneration of deceased emperors in Rome, and he often appeared dressed as a god in public and demanded worship as a living god. During this time he deposed Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, on suspicion of consorting with Parthia (Josephus, Ant. 18.7). Caligula also ordered that his statue be placed in the holy of holies in the Jerusalem temple (Philo, Embassy 203). Petronius, the governor of Syria, knowing that such an act would lead to civil war, refused to comply and appealed to Caligula to reverse the order. In response, Caligula sent an order to Petronius that he commit suicide. Fortunately, news of Caligula’s assassination by a conspiracy involving the praetorian guard and senators reached Petronius first.
Claudius, Caligula’s uncle, reigned in the years AD 41–54, and his rule was defined by numerous public works, a reordering of the judicial system, a torrid series of marriages, the conquest of Britain, and a number of attempted coups by the Roman senate. In AD 49 he expelled the Jews from Rome because of disputes about a certain “Chrestus,” probably Christ (cf. Acts 18:2). No one is sure whether Claudius was murdered or died of old age, but he remained a sharp contrast to the brutal excesses of Caligula and Nero.
Nero, the stepson of Claudius, reigned in the years AD 54–68. The early period of his rule was marked by cultural endeavors and diplomatic efforts. The later years were, in contrast, distinguished by tyranny and self-aggrandizement. There was a Jewish revolt against Rome in Judea (AD 66–70) during Nero’s reign, and Vespasian was sent to pacify the territory. According to ancient sources, Nero accused Christians of starting the fire of Rome in AD 64 and subjected them to the cruelest of punishments, including crucifixion, being thrown to wild animals, and even being burned alive. It probably was during this time that the apostles Peter and Paul were martyred in Rome. Nero eventually was declared a public enemy by the Roman senate, and he committed suicide before he could be captured in AD 68. There arose a “Nero redivivus” legend, whereby many hoped or feared that Nero had not died in AD 68 but had fled to Parthia and would return to Rome in order to destroy it (Sib.Or. 4.119–124; 5.137–141, 361–396), and this arguably stands behind the imagery of Rev. 13:3; 17:8–11.
The suicide of Nero left a power vacuum in Rome, and AD 69 saw no less than four emperors ascend the throne: Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and finally Vespasian. Galba was governor of Hispania Tarraconensis and was invited to become emperor by the senate, but he was killed by the praetorian guard after they were bribed by the praetor Otho. Otho himself committed suicide after his forces were defeated by Vitellius, the commander of the legions on the Rhine. Vitellius became emperor, but he was fiscally irresponsible and murdered many of his rivals. The legions in the Danube, Egypt, Syria, and Judea had declared Vespasian emperor and marched on Rome. Vespasian controlled the grain supplies to Rome from Egypt and had a superior force. Vitellius’s forces were defeated at Bedriacum, and Vitellius went into hiding but eventually was killed in Rome. Vespasian was declared emperor by the senate, and so began the Flavian dynasty, which restored order after the chaos of civil war.
The Flavians ruled in the years AD 69–96. Vespasian (r. AD 69–79) consolidated the empire after its year of strife and instituted new taxes, such as the fiscus judaicus, a war reparation tax placed on all Jews and paid to the temple of Jupiter in lieu of the Jerusalem temple tax. Vespasian was succeeded by his sons Titus (r.AD 79–81) and Domitian (r. AD 81–96). When Vespasian sailed to Rome from Judea, Titus was left in charge of the siege of Jerusalem, which he completed and celebrated in a triumph in Rome in AD 72. This triumph is memorialized in the Arch of Titus, which depicts Roman soldiers bringing the vessels of the temple to Rome as part of the booty taken. Later Roman writers regarded Domitian as a malevolent and malicious tyrant (e.g., Tacitus, Suetonius), but this probably is an exaggeration caused partly by a desire to highlight the greatness of succeeding emperors such as Nerva and Trajan. It probably was during the reign of Domitian that some Christians in Asia Minor were being persecuted for their failure to worship the emperor, as depicted in the book of Revelation.
Table 7. Roman Emperors (31 BC–AD 117)
31 BC-AD 14 – Augustus
AD 14-37 – Tiberius
AD 37-41 – Caligula
AD 41-54 – Claudius
AD 54-68 – Nero
AD 68-69 – Galba
AD 69 – Otho
AD 69 – Vitellius
AD 69-79 – Vespasian
AD 79-81 – Titus
AD 81-96 – Domitian
AD 96-98 – Nerva
AD 98-117 – Trajan
Military
Military expeditions expanded Rome’s control of foreign territories and safeguarded its borders from incursion, most threateningly from the Germanic tribes east of the Rhine River and north of the Danube River and from the Parthian (=Neo-Persian) Empire east of the Euphrates River. A Roman legion consisted of around six thousand men, including cavalry. Under Tiberius, there were twenty-five legions stationed across the empire: eight on the Rhine, three in Spain, two in Egypt, four in Syria, two in Africa, and six in the Danube region. In terms of command structures, the legions were under the control of certain regional commands by men of consular rank, including two on the Rhine, one in Spain, one in Syria, and three in the Balkans (Tacitus, Ann. 4.5). These were among the most powerful persons outside the ruling family and could be kingmakers or contenders during times of civil war. A legion was divided into ten cohorts and commanded by a legate, usually of senatorial rank. Units of one hundred were commanded by centurions, and service in the legions was set at between twenty and twenty-five years. Upon recruitment, the soldier swore an oath of loyalty to the emperor (sacramentum) that was renewed annually. During times of peace, Roman soldiers could perform a number of civil tasks relating to taxation, building projects, and policing.
Centurions are mentioned several times in the NT (e.g., Matt. 8:5; Mark 15:39; Acts 10:1; 21:32; 27:1). There is a mention of a “legion” of demons that oppressed the Gerasene demoniac (Mark 5:9), and Jesus refers to the possibility of the Father sending him “legions” of angels (Matt. 26:53). Military terminology is very apparent in Paul’s letters, where he refers to fighting armor (Rom. 13:11–13; 2Cor. 6:7; Eph. 6:10–18), compares commitment to Christ to military service (2Tim. 2:4), refers to his coworkers as “soldiers” or “fellow soldiers” (Phil. 2:25; Philem. 2; 2Tim. 2:3), and likens ministerial remuneration to a soldier being paid his salarium (1Cor. 9:7).
Culture and Religion
One of the primary reasons for Rome’s rise and dominance, militarily and culturally, was its capacity to absorb other peoples and even other gods into its constituency and pantheon. Its constantly growing pantheon, application of the rule of law, and superior military force made Rome what it was: a melting pot of all cultures and a Romanizer of other cultures.
Roman society was heavily stratified, but social mobility, upward and downward, was possible. Wealth, marriage, education, and military exploits were the primary means to social advancement. The senatorial class represented the wealthy nobility of Rome and provided the primary cohort of civil and military administrators. The equestrian class (or “knights,” as they are sometimes called) were a larger group of less wealthy Roman citizens. Decurions were members of civil councils in provincial cities who often acted as magistrates and were leaders of local communities. The plebeians represented the general citizenry of Rome, who, until the time of Tiberius, had some power in electing officials. Finally, there were freedmen, who were ex-slaves usually in a relationship with their former master, and also slaves, who were regarded as little more than property.
The ancient Roman religions focused on the numen, the somewhat impersonal divine power associated with certain localities. From the third century BC, Greek deities were assimilated and Romanized, so that Zeus became Jupiter, and Vesta was identified as Hestia. The Capitoline Hill was crowned with a temple that was dedicated around 500 BC to Jupiter, Minerva, and Juno. These were the principal gods of Rome, although others were added to the pantheon as the Romans conquered other peoples and adopted their gods. Other gods also received greater honor, such as the goddess Pax, the personification of peace (based on the Greek goddess Eirene); Vespasian built and dedicated a temple in her honor in Rome in AD 75. The Roman emperor was the Pontifex Maximus and supreme high priest of Rome and the empire. In the mid- to late first century AD, the fastest-growing religion was the imperial cult, the worship of (usually) deceased Roman emperors. This cult became popular in the eastern Mediterranean cities, where worship of rulers was commonplace, but was regarded with indifference in Rome.
Religions and philosophies from all over the known world eventually made their way to Rome. Egyptian rites and religions gained followings, Mithraism acquired currency within the ranks of the military and among public servants, Judaism entered Rome probably with the Hasmonean delegation sent there around 139 BC, and Christianity came to Rome probably during the late 30s and early 40s of the first century AD through Jewish pilgrims visiting the east and through Judean immigration to Rome. Many Roman intellectuals lamented the fact that so many foreign superstitions had found their way to Rome, and that Roman peoples found them more attractive than their own state religion. Roman religion was largely controlled by the state through a set calendar and the appointment of priests and vestal virgins. It was practiced in public and in the home. As such, religious life was very much intertwined with social and political life. Roman religion engendered the need for its citizens to act with pietas, the honoring of one’s obligations to the gods, and with religio, which designated appropriate scruples and rites in the presence of the gods.
Summary
The birth of the church and the growth of Christianity took place within the wider social, religious, and cultural context of the Greco-Roman world. The politics and power of the Roman Empire provide the backdrop for the birth of Jesus (Luke 2:1), and since Rome was considered to be the center of the world, it was necessary that Paul himself testify to Jesus Christ there (Acts 19:21). The history, literature, and cultural background of Rome form an important background to the NT and should be studied along with the history and literature of Judaism during the time of Jesus and the apostles. Although the Romans were the primary threat to the survival of Christians in the ancient world, after the conversion of Constantine in the fourth century AD, they became the primary means by which Christianity spread to the rest of Europe and western Asia. See also Roman Law.
Jesus’ personal return to earth at the end of history.Three main Greek terms are used in the NT to describe this event:parousia, apokalypsis, and epiphaneia. The word parousia means“presence” or “arrival” and was used inancient times to describe the arrival of a ruler or king (e.g., Matt.24:3, 27, 37, 39; 1Cor. 15:23; 1Thess. 3:13; 4:15; 5:23;2Thess. 2:1, 8; James 5:7–8; 2Pet. 3:4, 12; 1John2:28). The term apokalypsis refers to an “unveiling” or“revealing” of Jesus Christ at the end of the age (Rom.2:5; 1Cor. 1:7; 2Thess. 1:7; 1Pet. 1:7, 13; 4:13;cf. Rev. 1:1). The word epiphaneia speaks of an “appearing”or “manifestation” and refers to the visible, earthlyappearance of Jesus (2Thess. 2:8; 1Tim. 6:14; 2Tim.4:1, 8; Titus 2:13).
Jesusclearly predicted his second coming in his Olivet Discourse: “Thenwill appear the sign of the Son of Man in heaven. And then all thepeoples of the earth will mourn when they see the Son of Man comingon the clouds of heaven, with power and great glory” (Matt.24:30). Jesus uses the word “come” in this discourse tospeak about his return (Matt. 24:39, 42–44, 46; 25:19, 27, 31).Jesus’ return is also predicted by angels (e.g., Acts 1:11) andapostles (Phil. 3:20; Acts 3:20–21; 1Cor. 11:26; Heb.9:28).
TheNT describes certain events that will precede Jesus’ coming.There will be wars, famines, earthquakes, and other cosmicdisturbances (Matt. 24:6–8, 29). Believers will be persecutedand hated (Matt. 24:9–13, 21–22). Many erstwhilebelievers will turn away from the faith (Matt. 24:10–13; 1Tim.4:1; 2Tim. 3:1–5; 2Pet. 3:3–4). There will befalse messiahs and false prophets who will deceive many through signsand wonders (Matt. 24:11, 23–26). The “man oflawlessness” (sometimes referred to as the antichrist) will berevealed (2Thess. 2:1–12). In addition, the gospel willbe preached to all nations (Matt. 24:14).
AlthoughJesus’ coming is certain, its exact time is uncertain in thesense that it cannot be predicted. Jesus himself said, “Butabout that day or hour no one knows, not even the angels in heaven,nor the Son, but only the Father” (Matt. 24:36 [cf. Acts 1:7;3:21; 2Pet. 3:4, 8–9]).
WhenJesus comes again, his return will be visible to all, like “lightningthat comes from the east is visible even in the west” (Matt.24:27). The last trumpet will announce his coming in awesome powerand great glory with his holy angels (Matt. 16:27; 24:30–31;25:31; 1Cor. 15:52; 1Thess. 3:13; 4:16; 2Thess.1:7; 2:8; Jude 14). His coming will also be sudden and unexpected,“like a thief in the night” (1Thess. 5:1–2;see also Matt. 24:37–39, 43–44; 2Pet. 3:10; Rev.16:15).
Jesuswill come again for several reasons. He will raise the dead (John5:28–29; 1Cor. 15:22–23, 52; 1Thess. 4:16)and separate the wicked from the righteous (Matt. 24:40–41;25:31–32). He will transform the bodies of believers intoglorious resurrection bodies (1Cor. 15:51–53; Phil.3:20–21), gather his followers to himself (1Thess. 4:17;2Thess. 2:1), and reward them for their faithfulness (Matt.16:27; 24:46–47; 1Thess. 2:19; 2Tim. 4:8; 1Pet.5:4; Rev. 22:12). The believer’s suffering will be replacedwith the Lord’s praise (2Thess. 1:7; 1Pet. 1:7;4:13) and the full experience of salvation (Heb. 9:28). By contrast,Jesus’ second advent means wrath for the wicked (Matt. 24:51;Rom. 2:5; 2Thess. 1:8–9; Jude 15; Rev. 20:11–15)and destruction for God’s enemies (1Cor. 15:25–26;2Thess. 2:8; Rev. 19:11–21; 20:7–10).
Sincehis coming is imminent but its timing uncertain, believers shouldeagerly expect his return (1Cor. 1:7; 11:26; 16:22; Phil. 3:20;James 5:7–8; Rev. 22:20). Remaining watchful and ready consistsof being faithfully engaged in doing what Jesus instructed (Matt.24:46; 25:14–30; 1John 2:28), even if this meanssuffering (Matt. 24:13; 1Pet. 1:6–7). Believers arecalled to live holy and blameless lives in anticipation of meetingJesus face-to-face (1Thess. 3:13; 5:23; 1Tim. 6:14;1Pet. 1:13; 2Pet. 3:11–14; 1John 2:28–29;3:2–3). The promise of Jesus’ return is a motivation formission (2Tim. 4:1–2; 2Pet. 3:12) and obedience(Rev. 22:7, 12, 17). It is, in short, the “blessed hope”of the believer (Titus 2:13).
Hostile action carried out against someone or something.While used in Ezek. 22:26 to describe the manner in which Israel’spriests had utilized God’s law, violence most often involvesthe infliction of physical harm against a person or group. Thesubject of violence in the Bible, while extensive, is far fromsimple. Many OT passages refer to participation in violence assomething to be avoided, belonging to the life of the wicked ratherthan to that of the righteous (Ps. 27:12; Prov. 4:17). In the NT,violence is discouraged as well (Rom. 12:19–21). Violence isaddictive and ultimately destructive for those who live by it (Prov.13:2; 21:7). Violence begets violence (Ps. 137; Matt. 26:52). Arecurring biblical depiction of violence entails the spilling ofblood, due to a close association of blood with life (Jer. 51:35; cf.Lev. 17:14).
Manypassages assert or assume that God disapproves of violence (e.g., Job16:17; Ps. 17:4; Mal. 2:16; 1Tim. 1:13; Titus 1:7). God is arefuge against violence (2Sam. 22:3). Widespread violence onthe earth is the reason God gives for bringing about the flood (Gen.6:13). Violence is the sin of Nineveh (Jon. 3:8) as well as that ofIsrael, a point emphasized by the prophets when declaring that Israelwould go into exile (Isa. 53:9; Jer. 22:3; Ezek. 8:17; Hos. 12:1).
Yetthere are also passages that tolerate and even advocate violence.Scripture contains numerous stories of God’s people actingviolently. While in some cases these individuals may be acting ontheir own (see Judges), in some passages God explicitly commandsviolence (e.g., Deut. 7:1–2). In biblical military life,violence seems to be an accepted and even useful tool (e.g., 1Sam.17; 1Chron. 12). God is often described as, among other things,a warrior (Exod. 15:3; Matt. 10:34; Rev. 19:11–16).
Thequestion of the persistence of violence is voiced in Scripture butnot answered (Hab. 1:2–3), suggesting that there is no simpleanswer. Perhaps God’s recognition of the wickedness of thehuman heart (Gen. 8:21) leads him to be involved even in the violenceof this world, as instigator and also as recipient (Jesus). That theBible acknowledges the prevalence of violence in the world certainlyis significant. Yet the Bible also bears witness that this too shallpass as it describes God’s future plans, in which violence willbe no more (see Isa. 60:18).
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1. Prophecies Concerning the Passion
Illustration
Old Testament prophecies concerning Jesus and the events of Holy Week:
Betrayed by a friend - Ps 41:9
Sold for 30 pieces of silver - Zech 11:12
False witnesses accusing Him - Ps 27:12
Silent when accused - Isaiah 53:7
Struck and spit on - Isaiah 50:6
Suffered in our place - Isaiah 53:4-5
Hands and feet pierced - Ps 22:16
Mocked and insulted - Ps 22:16-18
Prayed for His enemies - Ps 109:4
His side pierced - Zech 12:10
Soldiers cast lots for His clothes - Ps 22:18
Not a bone broken - Ps 34:20
Buried with the rich - Isaiah 53:9
2. The Mirror of Judas
Illustration
Larry Powell
So muchhas been written, discussed, and speculated about Judas that we feel we know enough about him already. And really, what more is there to say of him other than he is for all times the supreme symbol of betrayal? Nothing, unless we are willing to admit that there was such about his life which causes us to be introspective about our own.
1. Jesus had confidence in him. To begin with, Jesus observed qualities about Judas which were suitable for discipleship. Had there been no goodness, no promise, no ability, Judas certainly would not have been included among the Twelve. Moreover, he was capable and trustworthy enough to be selected as treasurer for the group. So for whatever reason, future potential or ability already acquired, Jesus had confidence in him.
Has not Christ placed tremendous confidence in us? The care of his church, the propagation of his message, the extension of his ministry, faithfulness to our vows. Shall we too betray his confidence?
2. Judas knew how to be discerning. He was not without practical judgment. The care of the treasury would hardly be entrusted to a reckless, emotion-driven individual. Judas was present in the house of Mary and Martha when Mary anointed the feet of Jesus with an expensive ointment. His protest of the anointing is not without merit, inasmuch as his concern was not for himself, but that the ointment could have been sold and the money given to the poor. From time to time a similar protest is raised today by those who question the wisdom of erecting church facilities costing hundreds of thousands of dollars while so many hungry remain to be fed.
Each of us has been entrusted with the freedom of choice and the ability to discern. Do we betray Christ by our choices?
3. Judas had opportunity. His position among Christ’s chosen naturally enabled him to produce a positive witness. And even near the end, he had the opportunity to abort his scheme, the motive of which is still unclear to us. Jesus announced at the table that the one who would betray him would dip in the same dish as the others. Judas played dumb, but inwardly he knew that Jesus saw through his pretense. Judas had opportunity.
As members of Christ’s family, we have numerous opportunities to make positive witnesses. As a people who have followed our own schemes and well-devised plans, we have the opportunity to repent. Shall we betray Christ by bungling our opportunity?
4. Judas had access to Jesus. The fact that Judas was able to walk up to Christ in the garden and greet him with a kiss, the traditional greeting of a disciple for a teacher, clearly establishes that he had easy access to Jesus.
The Scriptures tell us that Christ serves as our "high priest," interceding on our behalf, having access to God, even as we have access to the Son through prayer. To neglect prayer and the spiritual life is to abuse the access. Shall we betray Christ by abusing our access?
What more is there to say of Judas, unless we are willing to admit that there was such about his life which causes us to be introspective about our own?
3. Successful Judas
Illustration
Tim Kimmel
Among the apostles, the one absolutely stunning success was Judas, and the one thoroughly groveling failure was Peter. Judas was a success in the ways that most impress us: he was successful both financially and politically. He cleverly arranged to control the money of the apostolic band; he skillfully manipulated the political forces of the day to accomplish his goal. And Peter was a failure in ways that we most dread: he was impotent in a crisis and socially inept. At the arrest of Jesus he collapsed, a hapless, blustering coward; in the most critical situations of his life with Jesus, the confession on the road to Caesarea Philippi and the vision on the Mount of transfiguration, he said the most embarrassingly inappropriate things. He was not the companion we would want with us in time of danger, and he was not the kind of person we would feel comfortable with at a social occasion.
Time, of course, has reversed our judgments on the two men. Judas is now a byword for betrayal, and Peter is one of the most honored names in the church and in the world. Judas is a villain; Peter is a saint. Yet the world continues to chase after the successes of Judas, financial wealth and political power, and to defend itself against the failures of Peter, impotence and ineptness.
4. It’s Ok to Be Extravagant – Sermon Opener
Illustration
James W. Moore
A few years ago there was a true story about a man in New York City who was kidnapped. His kidnappers called his wife and asked for $100,000 ransom. She talked them down to $30,000.
The story had a happy ending: the man returned home unharmed, the money was recovered, and the kidnappers were caught and sent to jail. But, don't you wonder what happened when the man got home and found that his wife got him back for a discount? Calvin Trillin was the writer of this story. He imagined out loud what the negotiations must have been like: "$100,000 for that old guy? You have got to be crazy. Just look at him! Look at that gut! You want $100,000 for that? You've got to be kidding. Give me a break here. $30,000 is my top offer."
Mark Trotter concluded his rendition of the story with this thoughtful comment: "I suppose there are some here this morning who can identify with the wife in that story, but for some reason I find myself identifying with the husband. I'd like to think if I were in a similar situation, there would be people who would spare no expense to get me back. They wouldn't haggle over the price. They wouldn't say, 'Well, let me think about it.' I like to think that they would say, 'We'll do anything for you.'"
The point of that story is this: sometimes it's O.K. to be extravagant! Now, that is precisely what this story in the Gospel of Mark is all about. Remember the story with me. Jesus is on His way to the cross. It is just a few days before Passover. The chief priests and scribes are plotting against Him. Judas is about ready to betray Him. The crucifixion is less than a week away and Jesus knows it. Jesus and His disciples stop at Bethany. just a few days before, Jesus had raised Lazarus from the dead there in Bethany. Now, as they are having dinner, a woman comes to Jesus and does a beautiful but extravagant thing for our Lord. The Gospel of John tells us that the woman was Mary, (the sister of Martha and Lazarus). Mary brings an alabaster jar of very expensive ointment. She breaks open the jar and pours the costly perfumed oil on Jesus' head. She anoints His head with oil.
Why did she do that? Some say it was an act of gratitude in which she was thanking Jesus for raising her brother Lazarus from the dead. Some say it was an act of consecration in which she was baptizing Jesus to encourage Him to go into the HolyCity and do what had to be done. Others say it was a foreshadowing, an act of preparation, in which she was anointing His body for the death which was to come in Jerusalem a few days later. All say it was an act of love and kindness.
But Judas said it was a waste. If you lived strictly by the Judas mind-set, you would have no Spire on the church, no flowers on the altar, no art on the wall, no robes for the choir, no fine organ, no beautiful weddings. Your daughter would come to you and say, "I'm in love and I'm so happy. I want to get married." And you would say, "Well, why don't you just elope? It's much cheaper. It would be wasteful to have a wedding." But the Mary mind-set says, "Sometimes in the name of love and kindness and gratefulness; it's O.K. Indeed, it's beautiful to be extravagant." Let me show you what I mean.
1. First Of All, It's OK To Be Extravagant In Our Generosity.
2. Second, It's OK To Be Extravagant In Our Gratitude.
3. Third And Finally, It's OK To Be Extravagant In Our Graciousness.
5. On Critics
Illustration
Benjamin Hoff
While traveling separately through the countryside late one afternoon a Hindu, a Rabbi, and a Critic were caught in a terrific thunderstorm. They sought shelter at a nearby farmhouse.
"That storm will be raging for hours." The farmer told them. "You ought to spend the night. The problem is there is only room for two in the house. One of you must sleep in the barn."
"I'll be the one said the Hindu, a little hardship is nothing to me." And he went to the barn.
A few minutes later there was a knock at the door. It was the Hindu. "I'm sorry he said to the others, but there is a cow in the barn. Cows are sacred creatures and I cannot impose."
"Don't worry said the Rabbi, make yourself comfortable. I will go sleep in the barn"
A few minutes later there was another knock at the door. It was the Rabbi. "I hate to be a bother," he said, "but there is a pig in the barn. In my religion pigs are unclean, I wouldn't feel comfortable sleeping near a pig."
"Oh, all right said the Critic, "I'll go sleep in the barn."
A few minutes later there was a knock at the door. It was the pig and the cow.
Note: The tie in here (if you're using John 12:1-11) is of courseJudas' Criticism of Mary, but we shouldn't single out Judassimply because he later betrayed Jesus. The other disciples were overly critical at times during Jesus' ministry. Hence, John's reference to Judas being the betrayeris probably for identifying purposesand not to tie Judas'critical behavior to his betrayal.
6. Triumph of Christianity
Illustration
Michael P. Green
One of the most famous books of all time is Edward Gibbon’s Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, in which this eighteenth-century historian traces what happened to that mighty empire and how it disintegrated from within. In that book is a passage that Winston Churchill memorized because he felt it so descriptive. Gibbon says this concerning the church within the empire:
“While that great body [Roman Empire] was invaded by open violence or undermined by slow decay, a pure and humble religion gently insinuated itself into the minds of men, grew up in silence and obscurity, derived new vigor from opposition, and finally erected the triumphant banner of the cross on the ruins of the Capitol.”
7. Forgiveness Is for Heroes
Illustration
Edward F. Markquart
Sometimes people say that forgiveness is intended to speak to individuals but not to nations. I feel differently about this. I see the cycle of violence and revenge repeated between ethnic groups and nations. We clearly see this escalating cycle of violence and revenge between the Palestinians and the Israelis, between the nations of Pakistan and India, between the USA and Russia during the Cold War. So many nations get into this pattern and cycle of escalating revenge and violence. "You bomb me and I will bomb you back even worse. You kill some of my citizens and I will kill even more of your citizens." We witness a gradually escalating scale of violence. Sometimes, people can use the language of justice simply as verbal cover-up for revenge.
Forgiveness is for heroes, because true forgiveness takes great courage of heart. Thomas Kepler once wrote that "forgiveness is for heroes." Lawrence Stern, the eighteenth century novelist, wrote that "only the brave know how to forgive." Only the brave know how to forgive, because forgiveness takes great courage when everyone around you is shouting for a "pound of flesh" and revenge. C. S. Lewis wrote that "everybody thinks forgiveness is a good idea until they have something serious to forgive."
8. Paying Caesar
Illustration
David G. Hagopian
The poll tax mentioned in this passage was levied by the Romans against the Jews beginning in A.D. 6 when Judea became a Roman province. This poll tax was still around years later during Christ's ministry but when it wasimposed for the first time, it provoked the rebellion of Judas the Galilean recorded in Acts 5:37 and discussed in more detail below. The Herodians favored the tax, but the Zealots, Pharisees, and people resented it. The Pharisees and the Herodians, though common adversaries in New Testament times on the very issue of rendering obedience and taxes to the Roman Empire, found themselves in common alliance in this instance to trap Christ in His words, trying to impale him on the horns of a serious dilemma. Should the authority of Caesar be recognized and the poll tax be paid to him?
If Christ were to have affirmed payment of the poll tax to Caesar, he would no doubt have pleased the Herodians but would have made Himself an even greater enemy of the Pharisees and an enemy of the people who shared popular resentment to the poll tax as an unlawful imposition by a heathen government. If, by contrast, Christ were to have denied that the poll tax be paid, he would have made Himself out to be an enemy of Romeand possibly, subject Himself to the charge of sedition.
9. The End of the Gladiator Games
Illustration
Robert Salzgeber
Telemachus was a monk who lived in Asia Minor about the year AD 400. During his life the gladiatorial games were very popular. The gladiators were usually slaves or political prisoners who were condemned to fight each other unto death for the amusem*nt of the crowd. People were fascinated by the sight of spurting blood.
Telemachus was very much disturbed that the Christian Emperor Honorius sponsored these games and that so many people who called themselves Christians went to see them. What could be further from the Spirit of Christ than the horrible cruelty of the gladiatorial games? The church was opposed to the games and spoke out against them, but most people would not listen because they were deaf to God's unbounded message of love.
Telemachus realized that talking about this evil was not enough. It was time to do something. But what could he accomplish - one lone monk against the whole Roman Empire? He was unknown. He had no power. And the games had been entrenched in Roman life for centuries. Nothing that he could possibly do would ever make a difference.
For a long time Telemachus agonized about the problem. Finally he could not live with himself any longer. For the integrity of his own soul he decided to obey Christ's Spirit within him, regardless of the consequences. He set out for Rome.
When Telemachus entered the city, the people he met had gone mad with excitement. "To the Coliseum! The games are about to begin!"
Telemachus followed the crowd. Soon he was seated among all the other people. Far away in a special place he saw the emperor.
The gladiators came out into the center of the arena. Everybody was tense. Everybody was quiet. Now the two strong young men drew their swords. The fight was on! One of them would probably die in a few minutes. Who would it be?
But just at that moment, Telemachus rose from his seat and ran into the arena. He held high the cross of Christ and threw himself between the two combatants.
"In the name of our Master," he cried, "Stop fighting!" The two men hesitated. Nothing like this had ever happened before. They did not quite know what to do.
But the spectators were furious. Telemachus had robbed them of their anticipated entertainment! They yelled wildly and stampeded toward the center of the arena. They became a mob. With sticks and stones they beat Telemachus to death.
Far down there in the arena lay the little battered body of the monk. Suddenly the mob grew quiet. A feeling of revulsion at what they had done swept over them. Their once deaf ears sensed a stirring. Emperor Honorius rose and left the coliseum. The people followed him. Abruptly the games were over.
Honorius sensed the mood of the crowd. His ears too were opened. He issued an edict forbidding all future gladiatorial games. Honorius' ears had been opened to the violence and dehumanization of the games. As a result he was able to speak.
So it was that in about the year A.D. 404, because one individual, filled with the love of Christ, dared to say no, all gladiatorial games ceased.
10. Be at Peace with One Another - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
One person armed with the Gospel of peace can change the world. Telemachus did. He was a monk who lived in the 5th century. He felt God saying to him, "Go to Rome." He was in a cloistered monastery but he put his possessions in a sack and set out for Rome. When he arrived in the city, people were thronging in the streets. He asked why all the excitement and was told that this was the day that the gladiators would be fighting in the coliseum, the day of the games, the circus. He thought to himself, "Four centuries after Christ and they are still killing each other, for enjoyment?" He ran to the coliseum and heard the gladiators saying, "Hail to Caesar, we die for Caesar" and he thought, "this isn't right." He jumped over the railing and went out into the middle of the field, got between two gladiators, and tried to stop them. The crowd became enraged and stoned the peacemaker to death.
When the Emperor of Rome, Honorius, heard about the monk he declared him a Christian martyr and put an end to the games. Legend has it that the very last Gladiatorial game was the one in which Telemachus died.
Jesus said, "Have salt in yourselves - be at peace with each other." Sometimes it seems we have gladiatorial games going on inside the church, inside our homes, at work? The games have been going on for as long as we can remember! Who will be a Telemachus? Who will be the monk who jumps into the arena, sacrifices himself, and brings peace? Peace can be made but it sometimes comes at a heavy price.
My question this morning is why are we so often at odds with one another? Why don't we have peace in our lives?
1. We fight to protect our turf.
2. We destroy the weak among us.
3. We will not let go of that which destroys us.
11. Getting Out of the Pit
Illustration
Jimmy Moor
There is an old legend about Judas that after his death Judas found himself at the bottom of a deep and slimy pit. For thousands of years he wept his repentance, and when the tears were finally spent, he looked up and saw way, way up a tiny glimmer of light. After he had contemplated it for another thousand years or so, he began to try to climb up towards the light. The walls of the pit were dark and slimy, and he kept slipping back down. Finally, after great effort, he neared the top and then he slipped and fell all the way back down to the bottom. It took him many years to recover, all the time weeping bitter tears of grief and repentance, and then he started to climb up again. After many more falls and efforts and failures, he reached the top and dragged himself into an upper room with twelve people seated around the table. "We've been waiting for you, Judas," Jesus said. "We couldn't begin till you came."
So many people are looking for a community of forgiven and forgiving sinners. Would they find what they are seeking here?
12. The Judas Goat
Illustration
Michael P. Green
The major reason for teenage suicide, drug addiction, and alcoholism is that most young people are conformists. They, like their parents, do what “everybody else” does, feeling instinctively that if most people are doing it, then “it” must be good to do. In effect, we act like sheep.
In apacking house where sheep areslaughtered, the sheep walk from their large pen up a narrow ramp andturn right. In order to get the sheep to move up the ramp, a “Judas goat” istrained to lead the sheep up the ramp to their death. The goat isplaced among the sheep and then walksconfidently to the ramp as the others follow. Once the Judas goat getsto thetop of the ramp the he turnsleft, as a gate isopened only for him and then closed. The others keep going, turnright, and walk to their death.
Note: Judas Goatis an actual term and are used in slaughter houses for this purpose.Read more hear.
13. Standing Ovation
Illustration
Robert P. Dugan, Jr.
We Americans do not adequately appreciate the political process in our nation. During the campaign, I often recounted a nightmarish 1938 incident from Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's The Gulag Archipelago, by way of contrast:
A district party conference was under way in Moscow Province. It was presided over by a new secretary of the District Party Committee, replacing one recently arrested. At the conclusion of the conference, a tribute to Comrade Stalin was called for. Of course, everyone stood up (just as everyone had leaped to his feet during the conference with every mention of his name). The hall echoed with "stormy applause, raising to an ovation." For three minutes, four minutes, five minutes, the "stormy applause, rising to an ovation," continued. But palms were getting sore and raised arms were already aching. And the older people were panting from exhaustion. It was becoming insufferably silly even to those who adored Stalin. However, who would dare to be the first to stop? The secretary of the District Party could have done it. He was standing on the platform, and it was he who had just called for the ovation. But he was a newcomer. He had taken the place of a man who'd been arrested. He was afraid! After all, NKVD men were standing in the hall applauding and watching to see who would quit first! And in the obscure, small hall, unknown to the leader, the applause went on six, seven, eight minutes! They were done for! Their goose was cooked! They couldn't stop now till they collapsed with heart attacks! At the rear of the hall, which was crowded, they could of course cheat a bit, clap less frequently, less vigorously, not so eagerly but up there with the presidium where everyone could see them?
The director of the local paper factory, an independent and strong-minded man, stood with the presidium. Aware of all the falsity and all the impossibility of the situation, he still kept on applauding! Nine minutes! Ten! In anguish he watched the secretary of the District Party Committee, but the latter dared not stop. Insanity! To the last man! With make-believe enthusiasm on their faces, looking at each other with faint hope, the district leaders were just going to go on and on applauding till they fell where they stood, till they were carried out of the hall on stretchers! And even then those who were left would not falter... Then, after eleven minutes, the director of the paper factory assumed a businesslike expression and sat down in his seat. And, oh, a miracle took place! Where had the universal, uninhibited, indescribable enthusiasm gone? To a man, everyone else stopped dead and sat down. They had been saved! The squirrel had been smart enough to jump off his revolving wheel.
That, however, was how they discovered who the independent people were. And that was how they went about eliminating them. That same night the factory director was arrested. They easily pasted ten years on him on the pretext of something quite different. But after he had signed Form 206, the final document of the interrogation, his interrogator reminded him: "Don't ever be the first to stop applauding!"
14. The Ravaged Life
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
When Leonardo da Vinci was painting his masterpiece, The Last Supper, he selected as the person to sit for the character of the Christ a young man, Pietro Bandinelli by name, connected with the Milan Cathedral as chorister. Years passed before the great picture was completed, and when one character only—that of Judas Iscariot—was wanting, the great painter noticed a man in the streets of Rome whom he selected as his model. With shoulders far bent toward the ground, having an expression of cold, hardened, evil, saturnine, the man seemed to afford the opportunities of a model terribly true to the artist's conception of Judas.
When in the studio, the profligate began to look around, as if recalling incidents of years gone by. Finally, he turned and with a look half-sad, yet one which told how hard it was to realize the change which had taken place, he said, "Maestro, I was in this studio twenty-five years ago. I, then, sat for Christ."
15. Structure Slows Things Down
Illustration
Sid Burgess
Why is that today, we who call ourselves disciples of Christ, can sit so very still in church? Why is it that change is so hard to come by in the old mainstream churches, like the Presbyterian Church, USA? For the answer, I have turned to one of my favorite theologians, a Canadian named Douglas John Hall. In his excellent, new little book, WHY CHRISTIAN?, Hall writes that, slowly but surely, the New Testament church developed structure and structure slows things down. But, the big change in the form and function of Christian movement came in the fourth century of the common era 4th century, AD when under the Roman emperors Constantine the Great and Theodosius the Great, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire.
Professor Hall reminds us that the Roman Empire was extremely well organized, and that it was only natural for the ruling elite to bestow its structure on the new religion of the realm. So, the church gets a pope to compliment the emperor, a hierarchy of bishops to relate to provincial governors, and lesser clergy, comparable to local officials. The church becomes part of the "establishment" by adapting both its message and its structure to the already-established patterns of its host culture.
16. The Perfect No Win
Illustration
Leonard Sweet
At some time every older sibling has pulled this on a little brother or sister who had a nickel they wanted.
"Okay," older child offers, "let's flip for it. Heads I win, tails you lose."
The little kids agrees: "Sure!" Then when heads appears the older proclaims "Heads, I win!" Of course if tails comes up the declaration is "Tails, you lose."
At this point it suddenly dawns on the younger child that this is truly a no-win situation. Whatever way the coin lands it's going to land in their sibling's pocket.
In this week's gospel text the Pharisees think they've concocted the perfect no-win question to present before Jesus: "Is it lawful to pay taxes to the emperor, or not?" If Jesus says yes, he'll alienate all those who continued to struggle against Roman rule and who ardently believed Israel must only be obedient to God and God's Torah. If, however, Jesus answers no, then he's immediately at odds with the entire Roman Empire and has identified himself as a dangerous, seditious opponent. Rome would deal swiftly with such a threat.
17. October Revolution
Illustration
Robert C. Roberts
In September through November of 1989, East Germany experienced what came to be called the October Revolution, in which the forty-year-old communist government fell with remarkably little violence. The church, especially the Nikolai Church of Leipzig, played an important role in encouraging and keeping nonviolent the increasingly large demonstrations that followed its Monday evening prayer services for peace.
The church’s involvement sometimes took courage. On October 9 it appeared that things might get very bloody, as the people were becoming bolder in the wake of Mikhail Gorbachev’s recent visit and leader Erich Honecker had given written orders for a “Chinese solution”--shooting up the crowd. The Lutheran bishop warned of a bloodbath, and doctors cleared hospital rooms to accommodate the wounded, but the leaders at the Nikolai Church decided not to cancel the prayer service for that evening.
After the service the demonstrators numbered 50,000; by the end of the evening there were 150,000 in the crowd. Because Egon Krenz, a Politburo member in charge of security, countermanded Honecker’s order for violence in a striking act of insubordination, the demonstration remained peaceful and became the turning point in the October Revolution. Some weeks later; demonstrators hung a banner across a Leipzig street: wir danken dir, kirche (We thank you, Church).
18. The Last Meal
Illustration
Larry Powell
Perhapsyou have visited the Upper Room Chapel in Nashville, Tennessee, and had the opportunity to meditate before the marvelous wood carving and its appointments which so dramatically depict the Last Supper. One of the mysterious features of this particular carving is that no matter where you kneel before the figure of Christ, his eyes gaze strangely into yours. So it must have seemed to the disciples gathered around the table in Jerusalem on that fateful evening. How much more intense it must have been for Judas, and we can but wonder where his eyes were fixed when Jesus uttered those terrible words. "He who has dipped his hand in the dish with me, will betray me" (Matthew 26:23).
So far as the disciples were concerned, they had gathered, as they had done since childhood, to partake of the traditional Passover meal. The streets of Jerusalem were crowded with pious Jews who had come into the city for this express purpose. The ritual was always the same: while at the table, the story of the escape from Egypt would be recounted ... there would be special foods on the table and unleavened bread would be eaten as a reminder of the haste in which the Exodus people had been forced to flee Egypt ... it was always the same.
To the disciples’ surprise however, Jesus suddenly departed from the familiar references; "And he took bread, and gave thanks, and broke it, and gave unto them saying, ‘This is my body which is given for you: this do in remembrance of me.’ Likewise also the cup after supper saying, ‘This cup is the new testament in my blood, which is shed for you.’ " Jesus had dramatically transformed the Passover supper into the Lord’s Supper on the evening of his "last supper" with them (see also Mark 14:22-24 and Matthew 26:26-29).
The Lord’s Supper:
1. Is a sacrament, meaning that it was instituted by Christ and commanded to be continued "till he come." In Paul’s familiar passage, used in the sacrament ritual, he adds, "For as often as ye eat this bread and drink this cup, ye proclaim the Lord’s death till he comes" (1 Corinthians 11:26).
2. Symbolizes the new covenant. The Old Testament covenant of the Law was sealed with the blood of animal sacrifice. However, this covenant had failed. The prophets themselves had said, "Behold, the days will come, saith Jehovah, that I will make a new convenant with the house of Israel, and with the house of Judah." The covenant of Law was being superseded by the new convenant of love, sealed by the blood of Christ.
3. Uses of common elements. In addition to using the traditional elements of the Passover, bread and wine, Jesus realized that each day when his followers partook of their meals, two things were certain to be on the table ... bread and wine. Consequently, even an ordinary meal would include reminders of the new covenant.
4. Was observed anxiously. Devout early Christians met daily to observe the sacrament in the prayerful hope that Jesus would return while they were sharing the sacred meal. In time, the early Church observed the sacrament each Sunday, a practice continued until the Reformation. Oddly enough, in Scotland, during the sixteenth century, it was observed in the country twice and in town four times a year.
5. Is called the eucharist, meaning the "thanksgiving," based on the passage, "He took a cup, and when he had given thanks...."
Perhaps John Calvin spoke for each of us when he admitted that "the matter is too sublime for me to be able to express, or even to comprehend ... I rather experience it, than understand it."
19. Devil Descriptions
Illustration
Merrill F. Unger
Possible Biblical references to Satan:
- Genesis 3:1-14 · He was disguised under the Edenic serpent
- Genesis 3:15 · He is the serpent's seed
- 1 Chronicles 21:1· Satan standsagainst Israel
- Job 1:7-2:10 · He accused and afflicted Job
- Isaiah 14:12 · He was Lucifer, son of the morning before the fall (This verse is erroneously ascribed to Satan. Itactually refers to the king of Babylon, see v. 3)
- Ezekiel 28:14 · He was the anointed cherub that covers (This verse also iserroneously ascribed to Satan. Itactually refers to the king of Tyre, see v. 1)
- Zecheriah 3:1-9 · He is Satan, the Adversary of unbelieving Israel
- Matthew 4:3 · He is the tempter
- Matthew 4:4; Luke 4:10-11 · He perverts the Word of God
- Matthew 12:22-29 · He works in demon possession
- Matthew 12:24; Acts 10:38 · He is the prince of the demons
- Matthew 13:19 · Snatches away the Word
- Matthew 13:38 · "the evil one"
- Matthew 13:38-39 · He sows tares
- Matthew 13:39 · He is "the enemy"
- Matthew 25:41 · He is a fallen angel
- Matthew 25:41; Rev 20:10 · His ultimate fate is Gehenna
- Luke 4:13 · He is the devil, the slanderer
- Luke 10:18 · He fell from a sinless high estate
- Luke 13:16 · He blinds people physically and spiritually
- Luke 22:31 · He viewed Simon Peter as a target
- John 3:8, 10 · His children are unsaved people
- John 8:44 · He was branded "a liar" and "the father of lies" by Jesus
- John 8:44 · He is a murderer
- John 12:31; 14:30 · He is the prince of this world
- John 13:2,27 · He caused Judas to betray Christ
- Acts 5:3 · Educes Ananias to lie
- 2 Corinthians 4:4 · He blinds people spiritually
- Ephesians 2:2 · He indwells the unsaved
- Ephesians 6:10-20 · He is routed by Spirit-directed prayer
- Ephesians 6:11-12 · He heads a celestial hierarchy of evil
- 1 Thessalonians 2:18 · He hinders God's will in believers
- 2 Thessalonians 2:9 · He works diabolic miracles
- 1 Timothy 4:1-6 · He instigates false doctrine
- 1 Peter 5:8 · He seeks to harm believers
- 1 Peter 5:8-9 · He is overcome by faith
- Revelation 2:9 · He has a synagogue of legalists who deny God's grace in Christ
- Revelation 12:9 · He is the deceiver
- Revelation 12:9; 20:2 · He is the dragon, that old serpent
- Revelation 20:1-3 · He will be bound during the millennium
20. Motivated to Help
Illustration
Maxie Dunnam
Five days after the awful earthquakes of Mexico City many years ago, the search for survivors was called off. Then beneath the ruins of a hospital, the cry of a newborn baby was heard. Rescue workers donned face masks, pinned on name tags in case they were buried, rushed into the rubble, and began digging with their hands. Underneath the tangled mass of steel and concrete were five babies miraculously well and alive. As one worker said, “The babies’ cries motivated us.”
What does it take to motivate us? The broken and the bruised are among us and their cries are heard in hospitals, in jails, out on the streets, but also in the places we lovingly call home. Family violence is an escalating problem. If you, your church, or a group to which you belong are looking for a way to reach out in mercy, the broken and bruised victims of family violence are crying for your help and waiting for your love.
21. Boredom
Illustration
Maxie Dunnam
If I had to pick a word to describe our time, high on the list would be the word bored. Clifton Faddiman has described our boredom as a special kind -- “not unhappiness, not fatigue, but that odd, modern, stunned look that comes from a surfeit of toys and a deficiency of thought.” He got us, didn’t he? Think about that in light of the daily routine interests of your life.
A surfeit of toys. With what do you surround your life and for what purpose?
A deficiency of thought. What challenging ideas have you pursued lately? What probing possibilities for growth have you been considering?
To be a whole person and to overcome our boredom, two things are essential. First, we need a faith to live by. Second, we need a cause to live for. Without these we will continue to betray our emptiness with that “odd, modern, stunned look that comes from a surfeit of toys and a deficiency of thought.”
22. Not Always A Saint
Illustration
Brett Blair
One of the greatest voices of the church was St. Augustine. He lived between the 4th and 5th centuries in Rome and was a Bishop. After Rome fell and faded into dust it was largely Augustine's writings that kept Christianity alive and made it the most influential movement the world had ever known. It is remarkable that between the 8th and 12th centuries his writings were more widely read than any other. And that was 400 to 700 years after his death.
But he was not always a saint. Before he was converted at age 29 he lived to fulfill every lust and pleasure. But Augustine had one great quality that saved his pitiful life—a praying mother. She never gave up on him until one day he stopped long enough to listen to the voices around him. Augustine had just heard a sermon by Saint Ambrose, Bishop of Milan.
We are told in public speaking and preaching classes not to read long quotes but I'm going to do it anyway and read something that Augustine wrote. These two paragraphs shaped the hearts and minds of hundreds of thousands of people throughout history. He is looking back on his conversion to Christianity and the convictions of his heart. Here's the quote:
"One day, under deep conviction: I cast myself down I know not how, under a certain fig-tree, giving full vent to my tears; and the floods of mine eyes gushed out…So was I weeping in the most bitter contrition of my heart, when, lo! I heard from a neighboring house a voice, as of boy or girl, I know not, chanting and oft repeating, "Take up and read; Take up and read." Instantly, my countenance altered, I began to think most intently whether children were wont in any kind of play to sing such words; nor could I remember ever to have heard the like.
So checking the torrent of my tears, I arose; interpreting it to be no other than a command from God to open the book, and read the first chapter I should find... Eagerly then I returned to the place where Alypius (his friend) was sitting; for there had I laid the volume of the Apostle. I seized, opened, and in silence read that section on which my eyes first fell: ‘Not in rioting and drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and envying; but put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no provision for the flesh...' No further would I read; nor needed I for instantly at the end of this sentence, by a light as it were of serenity infused into my heart, all the darkness of doubt vanished away."
23. Forgiveness Is His Business
Illustration
Angela Akers
In 1983 Mehmet Ali Agca was in the midst of the crowd in St. Peter’s Square. He pulled a gun out of his pocket and tried to assassinate Pope John Paul II. He was arrested and imprisoned. In January 1984 the Pope visited the prison, and when he walked through the cell door, he said to the young man, “I forgive you.”
The papers in the city of Rome made much of it, but one editorial writer made a significant statement. He wrote, “Of course, the Pope forgives the man who tried to kill him. After all, he is the Pope, and forgiveness is his business.” (1)
1. “Magic Eyes,” The Rev. Dr. William L. Self, Day 1, 2004, http://www.day1.net/index.
24. 2020 Vision
Illustration
Staff
According to the market-research group Nielsen, adults spend over 11 hours per day interacting with media. That's up from 9 hours and 32 minutes just four years ago. Of that 11 hours, 4 hours and 46 minutes are spent watching TV. According to an oft-citedreport by Common Sense Media, teens spend an average of 9 hours per day interacting with media, not including time spent for school or homework. For kids ages 8-12, the same Common Sense Media survey report found that they spent 6 hours per day interacting with media. Kids ages 2-5 spend around 32 hours per week in front of a screen (e.g., watching TV, videos, gaming).
Guidelines:
- A. Priorities: TV should not come before personal and family devotions, church responsibilities, schoolwork, or household chores.
- B. Personal growth: TV should not become a substitute for reading good books nor replace family sharing.
- C. Principles: TV programs should be rejected if they; 1) present violence as a legitimate way of achieving goals. 2) Approve of adultery, hom*osexuality, or sex before marriage, either directly or by implication. 3) Reflect a negative attitude toward the sacredness of the family and fidelity in marriage. 4) Minimize the seriousness of such sins as murder, violence, dishonesty, greed, lust, profanity, and immorality.
The 39,000 member American Academy of Pediatrics says too much TV watching by your children can turn them violent, aggressive or overweight and possibly all three. In their statement on kids and TV, the pediatricians advised the nation's parents to reduce their children's video-viewing by at least half. Data from the A.C. Nielsen Co. confirm the above data. Children aged 2 to 5 currently watch about 32hours of TV a week; Preteen and teen are spending even more since our world has turned to video for somuch of our socialinteractions.
Let's do the math. If video interaction now stands at 11 hours a day that's...
4,000 hours a year
280,000 hours by the time we are 70years of age.
There are 8760 hours in a year. So, how many years of our lives will we havespent in front of the screen? I'll give you a moment to do the math.
A staggering 32 years of our lives, of our children's lives, will have been spent in front of the screen. Is that what we want? I don't think so. We have to do something now. Make new rules.Shut the things off!We adults need to stop modeling this behavior. Here's a simple rule: Nogaming or TV during the school year Monday through Thursday. None.
That's one suggestion but action needs to be taken. Obviously, it's not going away and it is the new world we live in but relationships, healthy social skills and studies shouldbe a priority over the new entertainment. Find that balance in your family and stick to it.
25. Renouncing Everything
Illustration
Steven P. Loy
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn served in the Russian army during World War II. He was decorated for bravery and rose to the rank of captain. In 1945, while serving on the German front, he was arrested for criticizing Stalin in letters to a friend and was sentenced to eight years in a labor camp. After completing his prison sentence, Solzhenitsyn was exiled to Kazakhstan, but after Stalin's death his position improved, and his citizenship was restored in 1956. His first novels described how grim life could be in the labor-camp system. One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich was permitted publication in 1962 as a result of the personal intervention of Nikita Khrushchev. In subsequent years, however, he was considered to be a dangerous and hostile critic of the soviet system. He was again arrested and imprisoned. He was accused of treason, stripped of his citizenship, and forcibly deported to the West. His deportation in 1974 allowed him to personally accept the Nobel Prize for Literature, which he had been awarded four years earlier.
In his book The Gulag Archipelago, Solzhenitsyn documents the operation of the oppressive Soviet totalitarian system from 1918 to 1956 by using personal interviews and reminiscences from his time in the camps. He tells how prisoners were able to withstand abuse and interrogation even when they had done nothing wrong. This is a small section from the book.
How can you stand your ground when you are weak and sensitive to pain, when people you love are still alive, when you are unprepared? What do you need to make you stronger than the interrogator and the whole trap?
From the moment you go in prison you must put your cozy past firmly behind you. At the very threshold, you must say to yourself: "My life is over, a little early to be sure, but there's nothing to be done about it. I shall never return to freedom. I am condemned to die - now or a little later. But later on, in truth, it will be even harder, and so the sooner the better. I no longer have any property whatsoever. For me those I love have died, and for them I have died. From today on, my body is useless and alien to me. Only my spirit and my conscience remain precious and important to me."
Confronted by such a prisoner, the interrogator will tremble. Only the man who has renounced everything can win that victory.
26. The Christian Nature of Glory
Illustration
Scott Hoezee
Jesus' words in verse 31 about his NOW being glorified are properly odd-sounding considering what had just happened in the fact that Judas had fled the upper room to go forward with his dirty business. How strange that upon predicting his betrayal and upon seeing his betrayer exit the room that Jesus feels somehow "glorified." No mother would claim that her parenthood had been fulfilled upon seeing her son get arrested for cocaine possession. No politician would declare victory upon seeing his country attacked by terrorists. Yet Jesus sees the specter of betrayal and loss and diminishment and so much else that is dire and yet feels glorified. Even in the glow of Eastertide we in the Church do well to remember what the true nature of glory is for us. We in the Church are not "glorified" when we amass political clout, business influence, or power and glitz as the world reckons those things. The nature of our glory lies elsewhere in sacrificial love, in service, and, yes, even in laying down our lives for the sake of the kingdom if it comes to that.
27. Suffering for Independence
Illustration
Brett Blair
Fifty-six men signed the Declaration of Independence. Their conviction resulted in untold sufferings for themselves and their families. Of the 56 men, five were captured by the British and tortured before they died. Twelve had their homes ransacked and burned. Two lost their sons in the Revolutionary Army. Another had two sons captured. Nine of the fifty-six fought and died from wounds or hardships of the war. Carter Braxton of Virginia, a wealthy planter and trader, saw his ships sunk by the British navy. He sold his home and properties to pay his debts and died in poverty.
At the battle of Yorktown, the British General Cornwallis had taken over Thomas Nelson's home for his headquarters. Nelson quietly ordered General George Washington to open fire on the Nelson home. The home was destroyed and Nelson died bankrupt. John Hart was driven from his wife's bedside as she was dying. Their thirteen children fled for their lives. His fields and mill were destroyed. For over a year, he lived in forests and caves, returning home only to find his wife dead and his children vanished. A few weeks later, he died from exhaustion.
Such were the sacrifices of the founding fathers. There are no movements that have shaped the world where sacrifice was not called upon. And of course in the church we have all our grace predicated on a sacrifice and it didn't stop at the cross. Jesus told his disciples that they too would need to take up the cross. And that's what they did:
- Matthew suffered martyrdom by being slain with a sword at a distant city of Ethiopia.
- Mark expired at Alexandria, after being cruelly dragged through the streets of that city.
- Luke was hanged upon an olive tree in the classic land of Greece.
- John was put in a cauldron of boiling oil, but escaped death in a miraculous manner, and was afterward banished to Patmos.
- Peter was crucified at Rome with his head downward.
- James, the Greater, was beheaded at Jerusalem.
- James, the Less, was thrown from a lofty pinnacle of the temple, and then beaten to death with a fuller's club.
- Bartholomew was flayed alive.
- Andrew was bound to a cross, whence he preached to his persecutors until he died.
- Thomas was run through the body with a lance at Coromandel in the East Indies.
- Jude was shot to death with arrows.
- Matthais was first stoned and then beheaded.
- Barnabas of the Gentiles was stoned to death at Salonica.
- Paul, after various tortures and persecutions, was at length beheaded at Rome by the Emperor Nero.
28. Beyond Ambiguity
Illustration
Larry Powell
In the 1500s, there lived a "prophet" named Nostradamus who upheld the Copernican theory that the world is round and circles the sun more than one hundred years before Galileo was prosecuted for the same belief. He was also widely known as a healer, a dabbler in the occult, and predictor of events far into the future. A present day book, The Prophecies of Nostradamus, purports to show that he predicted such specific events as the assassination of John F. Kennnedy, Hitler’s rise to power, the Blockade of Britain, the Common Market, and other far sweeping events. The writings of Nostradamus are, however, exceedingly ambiguous, requiring a great deal of imagination on the part of the reader to even remotely apply them to events claimed as "fulfillments." I personally place no stock in this ancient mystic’s poetic "prophecies." But there is no ambiguity in the prophecies of Isaiah: (1) "Behold my servant, whom I uphold, my chosen, in whom my soul delights; I have put my spirit upon him, he will bring forth justice to the nations" (42:1). Let us now turn to Matthew 3:16: "As soon as Jesus was baptized, he went up out of the water. At that moment heaven was opened, and he saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove and lighting on him. And a voice from heaven said, ‘This is my son whom I love; with him I am well pleased.’ "
The servant described in Isaiah 53 was to be (2) a suffering servant; "Surely, he has borne our griefs and carried our sorrows; yet we esteemed him stricken, smitten by God, and afflicted. But he was wounded for our transgressions, he was bruised for our iniquities; upon him was the chastisem*nt that made us whole, and with his stripes we are healed" (vv. 4, 5). The entire New Testament is testimony to the "Song of the Servant," and in the remarkable economy of God, the wounds and bruises resulted in inclusive wholeness and healing. Unfortunately, there are those who have not embraced the vicarious suffering Christ as relevant for their own cases. Even on Christmas day, combat raged in eastern El Salvador between government troops and leftist rebels. A Roman Catholic priest claims that nearly 7,000 persons died in "blind violence" in the country during the past year. We will not dwell upon world violence and political unrest here, except to say that there are those who remain outside of the peace made possible by the redemptive work of Christ. But for those who have experienced the power of Christ in their lives personally, they have found it to be a strong potion, even in difficult times.
Slightly more than one hundred years ago, an especially gifted young man enrolled in Glasgow University. Anxious to begin academic studies and anticipating his forthcoming marriage, his spirits soared. But how rapidly the wheels of fortune turn. He was suddenly stricken by blindness, and his fiance, not wanting to be married to an invalid, rejected him. The tide had turned against him in a manner which would have devastated a lesser person. However, despite his adversities, he graduated from the university and went on to become one of the greatest preachers in the Church of Scotland. Not out of his despair, but out of his personal relationship with Christ, he wrote a hymn which we lift in praise until this day: "O Love That Wilt Not Let Me Go ..." Consequently, not only the New Testament, but individuals like George Matheson the hymnwriter and scores of others who have named the name of Christ, affirm that Isaiah’s prophecy has indeed come to pass.
There is more. The vicarious suffering of Christ was (3) once done, for all, and for all time. Such a sacrifice need never be repeated. I have read where each year, beginning on Ash Wednesday, thousands of Filipino Christians begin Lenten observances by flagellating themselves with whips and heavy branches. The whips have sharp stones and broken pieces of glass affixed to leathered ends. Certain others submit themselves to be actually crucified. Their devotion is admirable, but the gestures in which they engage are both barbaric and unnecessary. We continue to sin, yes, but the redemptive work of Christ at Calvary endures, once done for all time.
29. Reacting to Critics
Illustration
Bill Bouknight
The pastor John Maxwell tells a story about a salesman who went to his barber for a haircut. He told the barber about his upcoming trip to Rome. The barber was a rather acidic fellow. He had only negative comments to make about the airline the salesman had chosen, the hotel where he was going to stay, about Rome in general, and even about his hope of having an audience with the Pope. A month later the salesman returned to his barber, who asked him about the trip. "It waswonderful," he said."The flight was perfect and the hotel service was excellent. And I got to meet the Pope!" The barber asked, "What did the Pope say to you?" The salesman said, "He placed his hand on my head and said, 'My son, where did you get such a lousy haircut?'" May such an experience happen to every sourpuss and chronic critic!
30. All Roads Lead to Rome
Illustration
Dr. Ray Pritchard
Jesus was born during the famed Pax Romana, the Roman peace that spread across the Mediterranean world. No doubt you’ve heard it said that “all roads lead to Rome.” That statement was literally true. The Romans had built a road system that stretched from Rome in all directions. That enabled the gospel message to quickly spread to all parts of the known world. And Greek was the common language throughout the empire, which further united people and made it easier for the message of Jesus to come to the masses.
31. Smiles That Change the World
Illustration
Richard A. Jensen
He smiled when we would have expected him to cry. He smiled when we expected him to hate. He smiled when we expected him to revile. Tshenuwani Simon Farisani is a leader in one of the churches in South Africa. As a leader he felt it his duty to take a stand against the official government policy of apartheid. Apartheid means apartness. It's about keeping the races totally apart and separate from each other. Fortunately, the policy of apartheid has just recently been abandoned in South Africa. The abandonment of this policy, however, came only after years of immense suffering by the peoples of color in South Africa.
Because he stood against apartheid, Rev. Farisani was imprisoned many times. He was arrested first in 1976. Police surrounded his house. First his feelings were that he felt himself to be totally outside of the protection of God. Indescribable fear filled his being. The police accused him of being a communist and a terrorist. Farisani was arrested and commandeered to a prison 1,000 kilometers from his home. Said Farisani: "My world came to an end. No company, no freedom of movement, no say about food ... I was a creature without rights, a non-being."
And he was tortured. Endlessly. He was taken to yet another prison and handcuffed and leg-ironed. He remembers only punches and kicks. His hair was pulled out. His beard was uprooted. He was thrown to the floor then commanded to stand. He was thrown to the floor again and on and on it went, the thunders of the blows punctuating his groaning. Then they dangled his body upside down out of a window. "Answer us or we will let you fall to the ground and scatter your brains everywhere," his torturers growled. "We'll tell the world that you jumped!"
In subsequent tortures over the years Farisani experienced electric shock and more beatings. He cried out to God in prayer and God finally sent what seemed to be angels to relieve him. In fact, he has said, God sent so many angels to comfort him that he urged God to send some of them to his cellmates.
God was with Rev. Farisani. So in the midst of this indescribable suffering he could sing, "I will walk tall in Jesus' name. Food with worms, I will eat tall. My wife, my children, congregations away, I will walk tall in Jesus' name. Wounds all over, I will walk tall in Jesus' name. Pangs of prison, I walk tall in Jesus' name. Tall fences around, I walk taller in Jesus' name!"
Rev. Farisani should have grown to hate these bloody torturers. But he did not. Instead, he began to pray for them. Only after he had prayed for them, he has said, did he realize how much his guards and torturers needed daily, serious-minded intercessions. To all to whom he has told his story he has asked for prayers of intercession for the security police.
And one day in prison he smiled. He exchanged a simple smile with one of his torturers in order to sow a small seed of love in a world of hatred and division. He smiled when he would have been expected to hate. He smiled when he would have been expected to revile. God had given him such peace in the midst of hate that he could dare even to exchange a smile. These are the smiles that change the world.
32. Palm Sunday: Historical Background
Illustration
David E. Leininger
The palm branches and the shouts harked back a century-and-a-half to the triumph of the Maccabees and the overthrow of the brutal Antiochus Epiphanes, the Saddam Hussein of his day. In 167 B.C. Antiochus had precipitated a full-scale revolt when, having already forbidden the practice of Judaism on pain of death, he setup, right smack in the middle of the Jewish temple, an altar to Zeus and sacrificed a pig on it. Hard to imagine a greater slap in the religious face to good Jews. Stinging from this outrage, an old man of priestly stock named Mattathias rounded up his five sons, all the weapons he could find, and a guerrilla war waslaunched. Old Mattathias soon died, but his son Judas, called Maccabeus (which means "hammer"), kept on and within three years was able to cleanse and rededicate the desecrated temple.
"Mission Accomplished?" Well, it would be a full 20 years more of fighting, after Judas and a successor brother, Jonathan, had died in battle, that a third brother, Simon, took over, and through his diplomacy achieved Judean independence. That would begin a century of Jewish sovereignty.
Of course, there was great celebration. "On the twenty-third day of the second month, in the one hundred and seventy-first year, the Jews entered Jerusalem with praise and palm branches, and with harps and cymbals and stringed instruments, and with hymns and songs, because a great enemy had been crushed and removed from Israel." So says the account in I Maccabees - a story as well known to the crowd in Jerusalem that day as George Washington and the defeat of the British is known to us.
33. Courage to Take a Stand
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
When Honorius was emperor of Rome, about the year A.D. 400, the great Coliseum of Rome was often filled to overflowing with spectators. These had come from far and near to view the state games. Part of the sport consisted in watching as human beings battled with wild beasts or against one another until one or the other was killed. The assembled multitude made Roman holiday of such sport and found its highest delight in the death of a human being. It was on such a day when the vast crowd was watching the contest that a Syrian monk by the name of Telemachus stood up in the vast arena. Telemachus was torn by the utter disregard for the value of human life and so, he leaped into the arena in the midst of the gladiatorial show and cried out, "This thing is not right! This thing must stop!" Because he was interfering with their pleasure, the authorities gave the command for Telemachus to be run through with a sword, which was done. Thus, he died, but dying he kindled a flame in the hearts and consciences of thinking persons. History records that because of this within a few months the gladiatorial combats began to decline and very shortly they passed from history. Why? Because one man dared to speak out for what he felt was right.
34. Thomas - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
If I were to mention the names of certain disciples to you and ask you to write down the first word that comes into your mind, it is unlikely you would come up with the same words. If I were to mention the name of Judas many of you would write down the word "betray" but not all of you. If I were to mention Simon Peter, some of you would write down the word "faith," but not all of you. If I were to mention the names of James and John, some of you would write down the phrase "Sons of Thunder," but not all of you. But when I mention the word Thomas, there is little question about the word most everyone would write down. It would be the word doubt. Indeed, so closely have we associated Thomas with this word, that we have coined a phrase to describe him: "Doubting Thomas."
You may be interested to know that in the first three gospels we are told absolutely nothing at all about Thomas. It is in John's Gospel that he emerges as a distinct personality, but even then there are only 155 words about him. There is not a lot about this disciple in the Bible but there is more than one description.
When Jesus turned his face toward Jerusalem the disciples thought that it would be certain death for all of them. Surprisingly, it was Thomas who said: Then let us go so that we may die with him. It was a courageous statement, yet we don't remember him for that. We also fail to point out that in this story of Thomas' doubt we have the one place in the all the Gospels where the Divinity of Christ is bluntly and unequivocally stated. It is interesting, is it not, that the story that gives Thomas his infamous nickname, is the same story that has Thomas making an earth shattering confession of faith? Look at his confession, "My Lord, and my God." Not teacher. Not Lord. Not Messiah. But God! It is the only place where Jesus is called God without qualification of any kind. It is uttered with conviction as if Thomas was simply recognizing a fact, just as 2 + 2 = 4, and the sun is in the sky. You are my Lord and my God! These are certainly not the words of a doubter.
Unfortunately history has remembered him for this scene where the resurrected Christ made an appearance to the disciples in a home in Jerusalem. Thomas was not present and when he heard about the event he refused to believe it. Maybe he was the forerunner of modern day cynicism. Maybe the news simply sounded too good to be true. Thomas said: Unless I feel the nail prints in his hands I will not believe.
Now I cannot help but notice that Thomas has separated himself from the disciples and therefore, in his solitude, missed the resurrection appearance. I think that john is suggesting to us that Christ appears most often within the community of believers that we call the church, and when we separate ourselves from the church we take a chance on missing his unique presence.
But the story doesn't end here. The second time Jesus made his appearance Thomas was present with the disciples and this time he too witnessed the event. This time he believed. What can we learn from the life of Thomas?
1. Jesus did not blame him.
2. The most endearing things in life can never be proven.
3. We must move beyond doubt to faith.
35. The Passing of the Apostles
Illustration
Staff
Tradition holds that the Apostles died in the following manner:
- Matthew suffered martyrdom by being slain with a sword at a distant city of Ethiopia.
- Mark expired at Alexandria, after being cruelly dragged through the streets of that city.
- Luke was hanged upon an olive tree in the classic land of Greece.
- John was put in a cauldron of boiling oil, but escaped death in a miraculous manner, and was afterward banished to Patmos.
- Peter was crucified at Rome with his head downward.
- James, the Greater, was beheaded at Jerusalem.
- James, the Less, was thrown from a lofty pinnacle of the temple, and then beaten to death with a fuller's club.
- Bartholomew was flayed alive.
- Andrew was bound to a cross, whence he preached to his persecutors until he died.
- Thomas was run through the body with a lance at Coromandel in the East Indies.
- Jude was shot to death with arrows.
- Matthais was first stoned and then beheaded.
- Barnabas of the Gentiles was stoned to death at Salonica.
- Paul, after various tortures and persecutions, was at length beheaded at Rome by the Emperor Nero.
36. Looking with Magic Eyes
Illustration
William L. Self
In 1983 Mehmet Ali Agca was in the midst of the crowd in St. Peter's Square. He pulled a gun out of his pocket and tried to assassinate Pope John Paul II. He was arrested and imprisoned. In January 1984 the Pope visited the prison, and when he walked through the cell door, he said to the young man, "I forgive you."
The papers in the city of Rome made much of it, but one editorial writer made a significant statement. "Of course the Pope forgives the man who tried to kill him. After all, he is the Pope, and forgiveness is his business."
Strangely enough, what he said about the Pope is true about us. Forgiveness is the business of every Christian. But forgiveness is scarce in our culture, although it is terribly needed. We bury the hatchet with people, but then we keep a road map of exactly where we buried it. We put our resentments in cold storage, but we're ready to let them thaw out again whenever we need them. We take grudges down to the lake to drown them, but we remember the location in the water so we can find them again. We take the cancelled note, tear it up and say, "They don't owe us anything anymore," but we hang onto the wastebasket. We talk about forgiveness more than we forgive.
37. The Hinge of History
Illustration
J. Ellsworth Kalas
It sometimes seems that God shows his sense of humor with history. Halford Lucco*ck once noted that Nero was sure that the most important happenings in Rome were the words he said, the laws he enacted, and the things he did. As a matter of fact, the biggest events in Rome at the time were some prayer meetings which were being held secretly in the catacombs. The Medici family dynastymust have seemed like the greatestfigures in Renaissance Europe, with their palaces, art galleries, and political power. Yet they are overshadowed by "a little boy playing about on the docks of Genoa," who would eventually open the seaway to the Americans – Christopher Columbus.
So it was in John the Baptizer's time. One can easily imagine the pomp and circ*mstance with which Herod trampled about as tetrarch of Galilee. Wherever he went, people parted andbowed. They waited for recognitionand dreamed of some act of preferment from his hand. Herod was, indeed, a big man in Galilee in the first century. Today, all his pomp is simply pompous, and all his circ*mstance only circ*mstantial. But John the Baptizer! a great human being.
38. 8 Signs You're Not Reading Your Bible
Illustration
King Duncan
A group of boys and girls was asked to sum up what they had learned from the New Testament. Here is a summation of what they had learned: "Jesus is the star of the New Testament. He was born in Bethlehem in a barn. During His life, Jesus had many arguments with sinners like the Pharisees and the Republicans. Jesus also had twelve opossums. The worst one was Judas Asparagus. Judas was so evil that they named a terrible vegetable after him.
"Jesus was a great man. He healed many leopards and even preached to some Germans on the Mount. But the Republicans and all those guys put Jesus on trial before Pontius the Pilot. Pilot didn't stick up for Jesus. He just washed his hands instead. Anyways, Jesus died for our sins, then came back to life again. He went up to Heaven but will be back at the end of the Aluminum. His return is foretold in the book of Revolution."
You laugh, but many adults wouldn't fare much better in describing the New Testament. Here areeight signs you are not reading your Bible enough:
- The pastor announces the sermon is from Galatians . . . and you check the table of contents.
- You think Abraham, Isaac and Jacob may have had a few hit songs during the 60s.
- You open to the Gospel of Luke and a WWII Savings Bond falls out.
- Your favorite Old Testament patriarch is Hercules.
- You become frustrated because Charlton Heston isn't listed in either the concordance or the table of contents.
- Catching the kids reading the Song of Solomon, you demand: "Who gave you this stuff?"
- You keep falling for it every time when pastor tells you to turn to First Condominiums.
- And the No. 1 sign you may not be reading your Bible enough: The kids keep asking too many questions about your usual bedtime story: "Jonah the Shepherd Boy and His Ark of Many Colors."
39. What Kind of Cross?
Illustration
Larry Powell
Not long ago, a hard-rock singer reknowned for his notorious over indulgence in mind-altering drugs appeared on television to scream, lunge, and gyrate through one of his bestselling songs. Inasmuch as the rather badly garbled words were totally incomprehensible to me, I turned my attention to the bizarre, uninhibited attire of this widely heralded "artist." Not to dwell on the flamboyance of his appearance, I wish only to point out that dangling from an expensive chain around his neck was a large cross. Perhaps it was there as a counterstatement, a message of rebellion to institutional religion, or perhaps he simply counted it as an attractive piece of jewelry. I do not know. But more and more, the cross is appearing on necklaces, earrings, bracelets, and the like as fashionable symbols, which is all right, I suppose, except that the behavior of those brandishing them is not always consistent with what the cross represents. If a person in ancient Rome had adorned himself with a cross, it would have been the equivalent of someone today wearing the likeness of the electric chair around his neck. The cross was originally not considered to be a thing of beauty. It conveyed pain, humiliation, and death. It still does, except in the Christian context. Another dimension was added to Calvary ... victory.
Jesus issued a call to discipleship, but the invitation contained an inherent inhibitor: "If any man would come after me, let him deny himself and take up his cross and follow me." A cross of adornment or embellishment was not what Jesus had in mind. Self-denial and risking the consequences of following the way of Christ are at the heart of the call to discipleship.
In the eighteenth century, a German artist, Stenberg, was walking through the market place of his home town when he was attracted to the face of a dancing gypsy girl. He invited her to sit for him in his studio as a model. Accepting his invitation, she enabled Stenberg to paint his famous "Dancing Gypsy Girl." There is more. The young girl was greatly impressed by what she saw in the artist’s studio, particularly a painting in progress titled "Crucifixion." Arrested by the painting, she said one day to Stenberg, "He must have been a very bad man to have been nailed to a cross like that." Stenberg replied, "No, he was a good man. The best man who ever lived. Indeed, he died for all men." The girl asked, "Did he die for you?" Stenberg had never really made such a personal application of his explanation. He was led to search the Scriptures, and in a few short weeks, he discovered the answer and surrendered himself to Christ. Returning to his painting of the "Crucifixion," he added these words beneath the likeness of Christ on the cross: "This I did for thee; what hast thou done for me?" There is more. A young aristocratic count, Zinzendorf by name, chanced to observe the painting, paused to meditate at both the depiction and the words, and was so moved that he went on to found the Moravians.
There are elements of power and attraction about the cross. There also is an inaudible appeal: "This I did for thee; what hast thou done for me?" Have we denied ourselves and taken up our cross, whatever it may be, and followed him?
40. How a King Enters a City
Illustration
King Duncan
The Greek author Plutarch describes how kings are supposed to enter a city. He tells about one Roman general, Aemilius Paulus, who won a decisive victory over the Macedonians. When Aemilius returned to Rome, his triumphant procession lasted three days. The first day was dedicated to displaying all the artwork that Aemilius and his army had plundered. The second day was devoted to all the weapons of the Macedonians they had captured. The third day began with the rest of the plunder borne by 250 oxen, whose horns were covered in gold. This included more than 17,000 pounds of gold coins. Then came the captured and humiliated king of Macedonia and his extended family. Finally, Aemilius himself entered Rome, mounted on a magnificent chariot. Aemilius wore a purple robe, interwoven with gold. He carried his laurels in his right hand. He was accompanied by a large choir singing hymns, praising the military accomplishments of the great Aemilius. That, my friends, is how a king enters a city.
But the King of Kings? He entered riding on a lowly donkey. If he had consulted his political advisors, they would have been aghast. What was he up to? Leaders are supposed to project strength and power.
41. TAX COLLECTOR
Illustration
Stephen Stewart
Modern taxes are a recent development, but the practice of taxation is an ancient one. The comment, "There is nothing more sure than death and taxes" has won sympathetic agreement down through the ages.
Now, certainly, any thinking person will agree that taxes are a necessity of governmental life, but we seldom approve of the methods for collecting such taxes. We are always sure that there just has to be a better way! And this has been the attitude throughout recorded history. Away back at the time of the division of the kingdom, Adoniram, a tax collector for King Rehoboam, was stoned to death for his activities!
We have mention throughout all of the Bible of the taxes imposed on the people, either by God or by conquering nations, but the title of "tax collector" seems to be a strictly New Testament term. The problem goes back to the Ptolemaic rule over Palestine, after the death of Alexander the Great. Under Ptolemy, the taxation of each city was leased to the highest bidder and that sum was then to be paid to the royal Treasury. If his collection fell below the required sum, the tax collector had to make up the difference. Any amount that he collected above this required sum he was allowed to keep. Although the tax collectors generally had a better than average education, since they had to know how to read, write, and figure sums, they also had to be men who were not above using cunning or violence to collect the taxes.
Many persons tried to cheat them, and used many ingenious ways of doing so, so the tax collector had to be just a little bit smarter, to keep ahead of them. And, if cunning didn’t work, a show of violence could be counted on to do the trick. One tax collector beheaded twenty persons when they refused to pay their taxes, and then confiscated their possessions!
In New Testament times, Roman officials were directly responsible for the collection of regular taxes, such as poll and land taxes. There were many other taxes, however, which were farmed out to private contractors for a period of five years. Usually, these contractors were Romans, but, occasionally, they were Jews.
Tax collectors as a class have never enjoyed a great popularity, but those who operated in early New Testament times were particularly despised. You see, even though the Jews had a long history of domination by others, and, at some periods, had even accepted this domination and had risen to eminence within a captive state, this was never the feeling that they had toward the Romans. It’s true that many Jews recognized the many benefits that they derived from the Roman system, but still their captors were harsh, cruel people, and were held in hatred and fear. So, any Jew who had sold out to the Romans was doubly hated, as an apostate and a traitor, taking away from his own people to give to the hated Romans! The rabbis regarded tax collectors as the same as robbers and refused to allow them to be judges or even to give witness.
We know, of course, that Matthew was a tax collector, and that Jesus often dined at the homes of these men, a fact which the Pharisees played up to full advantage. Zacchaeus was a tax collector who saw the error of his ways and offered to restore by fourfold his deceitful gains and to donate half of his capital to charity!
Although we often grumble about the taxes we have to pay, especially in April of every year, I’m sure we are all aware of the necessity of the taxation procedure to keep the wheels of our governments running smoothly. Today’s tax men, who work for the Internal Revenue Service, are educated, trained men, who are not to be anathematized, even when we might be disgruntled. Rather, they are an important part of our economic picture, and as such we owe them thanks for keeping our country in a state of relative solvency.
42. You Can’t Stop God
Illustration
Thomas Long
In a book titled Whispering the Lyrics, Dr. Tom Long takes us back to an ugly time in our own history:
"During the prime days of the struggle for racial integration in the South, black civil rights workers, 'freedom riders' they were called, would travel on buses from city to city, challenging segregationist laws. Sometimes they were greeted with violence; often they were arrested. In one town, a bus was halted by the police and the passengers booked and jailed. While they were there, the jailers did everything possible to make them miserable and to break their spirits. They tried to deprive them of sleep with noise and light during the nights. They intentionally over salted their food to make it distasteful. They gradually took away their mattresses, one by one, hoping to create conflict over the remaining ones.
"Eventually the strategies seemed to be taking hold. Morale in the jail cells was beginning to sag. One of the jailed leaders, looking around one day at his dispirited fellow prisoners, began softly to sing a spiritual song. Slowly, others joined in until the whole group was singing at the top of their voices and the puzzled jailers felt the entire cell block vibrating with the sounds of a joyful gospel song. When they went to see what was happening, the prisoners triumphantly pushed the remaining mattresses through the cell bars, saying, 'You can take our mattresses, but you can't take our souls.'"
Tom Long says, "It was the hymn singers who were in jail, but it was the jailers who were guilty. It was the prisoners who were suffering, but the jailers who were defeated. It was the prisoners who were in a position of weakness, but it was the broken and bigoted world of the jailers . . . that was perishing."
Friends, you can't stop God. Once God begins moving, the best you can do is get out of the way. God was at work at the manger of Bethlehem. God was at work redeeming the world to Himself. No wonder the baby leaped. Christmas is an exciting time. God has come into the world. God's plan for the world is being fulfilled. It is a time for leaping for joy.
43. Who Is That with John?
Illustration
Jim Kerner
Larry was sick and tired of his friend Stan's constant name-dropping and boasting of how famous he was. The day finally came when Larry could take it no more. He told Stan, "If you're so famous and know so many important people phone the White House and get the President on the line."
Stan shrugged and walked to the phone. He punched in a number and handed the phone to Larry. The familiar voice greeted him with the words, "Hello, this is the President of the United States. How may I help you?"
Larry was convinced that it was either an accident or a put on. He said, "Well, that was impressive. But if you are really important, call Buckingham Palace and let me talk to the queen."
With a bored sigh, Stan took the phone, punched in a number, and again gave Larry the receiver. "Hello," came a distinctive voice,"This is the Queen of England speaking."
Larry was very impressed but still suspicious. He said, "All right, you happen to know the President and the Queen of England. But if you're really a big shot, get the Pope on the phone."
Stan promised to do better than that. He took Larry to the airport and both men boarded a plane for Rome. When they arrived in Rome they took a taxi cab to the Vatican. They came into St. Peter's Square. Upon arriving there, Stan walked away, leaving Larry to mill about in the large crowd waiting for the Pope's afternoon greeting from the balcony.
Suddenly a reverent hush fell over the crowd. Larry looked up at the balcony where Stan and the Pope stood side by side. Larry almost fell over in shock. Before he could recover from his amazement, a man standing beside him poked him in the ribs and asked, "Hey, who's that standing up there with Stan?"
People often have the same problem with John the Baptist; they don't exactly know who he is and what his relation to Jesus is. They become confused and mistake him and his purpose with that of the Messiah.
44. The Critical Spirit
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
A salesman, visiting his barber for a haircut, mentioned that he was about to take a trip to Rome. The barber, who came from Italy, said, "Rome is a terribly overrated city. What airline are you taking and what hotel are you staying at?"
When the salesman told him, the barber criticized the airline for being undependable and the hotel for having horrible service. He told him "You'd be better off to stay home."
But the salesman insisted: “Tm expecting to close a big deal, and then I' m going to see the pope."
The barber shook his head and said, "You'll be disappointed trying to do business in Italy and I wouldn't count on seeing the pope. He only grants audiences to very important people."
Two months later the salesman returned to the barber shop. The barber asked, "And how was your trip?"
The salesman replied, "Wonderful! The flight was perfect, the service at the hotel was excellent. I made a big sale, and I got to see the pope."
The barber was astounded. "You got to see the pope? What happened?" "I bent down and kissed his ring."
"No kidding! And what did he say?"
"Well, he looked down at my head and then said to me, ‘My son, where did you ever get such a lousy haircut?'"
45. A Weapon of Love
Illustration
Joel D. Kline
Martin Luther King, Jr., whose birthday we celebrate this week, spoke with some frequency during his years of ministry of putting on the "weapon of love." Responding to those who resisted the emerging civil rights movement, King asserted, "We will counter your force with soul force, we will match your ability to hate with our ability to love." And King reminded us that at the heart of Jesus' life and message is the call to be peacemakers and reconcilers. Violence, said King again and again, "never brings permanent peace. It solves no social problems; it merely creates new and more complicated ones."
We live in a world thirsty for this gospel of peace. With Martin Luther King, and with Jesus before him, we need to announce with integrity, "The old law of an eye for an eye leaves everyone blind. It is immoral because it thrives on hatred rather than on love. It destroys community…Violence ends by defeating itself. It creates bitterness in the survivors and brutality in the destroyers."
46. Some Not So Bright Thieves
Illustration
King Duncan
Not everybody who takes up a life of crime is all that smart. Sometimes movies or television glorify criminals. They make them appear sophisticated, even cool. Most criminals do not fall in that category.
Like the guy who walked into a little corner store in England with a shotgun and demanded all the cash from the cash drawer. After the cashier put the cash in a bag, the robber saw a bottle of scotch that he wanted behind the counter on the shelf. He told the cashier to put it in the bag as well, but the cashier refused and said, "I don't believe you are over 21."
The robber said he was, but the clerk still refused to give it to him because he didn't believe him. At this point the robber took his driver's license out of his wallet and gave it to the clerk. The clerk looked it over, and agreed that the man was in fact over 21 and he put the scotch in the bag. The robber then ran from the store with his loot. The cashier promptly called the police and gave the name and address of the robber that he got off the license. They arrested the robber two hours later. Not the brightest tool in the box.
Charles Cortez, a sheriff's deputy from Los Angeles tells about investigating a late-night break-in at a local factory. Someone had broken a window in the factory, stolen a large industrial sewing machine, and gone out the front door with it. But in their haste, the burglars must not have noticed that one end of the industrial thread had caught on a splintered area of floor. Officer Cortez began following the string as it wound out of the factory, down the street, and into a nearby neighborhood. Eventually, the length of string led him straight to the front door of the band of thieves. The three men were arrested without incident, and the sewing machine was returned to its rightful owner. I believe those burglars need to find another profession.
Michael E. Hodgin tells of pair of robbers who entered a record shop nervously waving revolvers. The first one shouted, "Nobody move!" When his partner moved, the first bandit was startled and shot him.
Of course, some criminals are smarter than others. Jesus hung on a cross between two thieves, according to Matthew and Mark. Luke doesn't specify their crimes. He simply calls them criminals. According to Luke one of the thieves joined in the mob that was mocking Jesus. He hurled insults at the Master. One of those insults particularly stung: "Aren't you the Christ? Save yourself and us!"
But the other thief had a better grasp of what was happening there. He rebuked his colleague in crime. "Don't you fear God," he said, "since you are under the same sentence? We are punished justly, for we are getting what our deeds deserve. But this man has done nothing wrong."
Then he turned to the Master and said, "Jesus, remember me when you come into your kingdom." What a remarkable statement of faith.
47. Wanted Men
Illustration
John Newland
When Fred Phillips, retired public-safety director and police chief of Johnson City, Tenn., was a regular police office, he and his partner pulled over an unlicensed motorist. They asked the man to follow them to the police station, but while en route they spotted a North Carolina vehicle whose license plate and driver matched the description in an all-points bulletin.
The officers took off in a high-speed chase, and finally stopped the wanted man's car.
Minutes later, as the felon was being arrested, the unlicensed motorist drove up. "If y'all will just tell me how to get to the station, I'll wait for you there," he said. "I'm having a heck of a time keeping up with you."
48. Our Actions Reveal Who We Are
Illustration
Brett Blair
A little boy by the name Billy visited his grandmother in California one summer and almost wore her out with his vigorous activity. She was accustomed to living a peaceful, orderly life. He was perpetual motion, into everything, and nearly turned the house upside down everyday. One night when they were both sound asleep, there was an earthquake. The grandmother was awakened by the house shaking and in her concern called out, "Billy, Billy!" Billy yelled back, "I didn't do it, grandma!" Well, Billy was a little like an earthquake at times to a grandma who liked her quiet lifestyle.
We reveal who we are by our actions. It is by our interactions with others that we paint, stroke by stroke, the portrait of who we are. We have grown accustom to Palm Sunday as a celebration in honor of Jesus Christ as our heavenly King. But Jesus did not look out among the branches and see the faithful. He looked out among the palms and saw what he had seen for the last three years. A people whose understanding was dim and whose hearts were filled with malice and vengeance toward Rome. Their voices shouted Hosanna but their hearts beat with a bloody desire for war.
Is it any wonder that they crucified him? No. Not with the disappointment they must have felt when he was arrested and his kingdom movement came to an end.
49. People First
Illustration
Ryan Holiday
My favorite story about Marcus Aurelius comes at the depths of the Antonine Plague, which is a horrible pandemic that kills millions of people. Rome’s economy has been devastated. People are dying in the streets, and everyone feels like it can’t possibly get better. And what does Marcus Aurelius do? He walks through the imperial palace and begins to mark things for sale. For two months he sells on the lawn of the Great Emperor’s Palace, the jewels and robes and couches, the fineries owned by the emperor. He’s sending a message. He says, I’m not going to put myself first. I don’t need these fancy things, not when people are struggling. He says, I’m gonna do the little things that make a difference. To me this is like the CEO who takes a pay cut in a bad economy; this is the athlete who renegotiates their contract so the team can bring on new people; this is the leader who sacrifices and struggles, who puts the people first not their own comfort and needs. That’s what greatness is like.
50. The Last Great Deliverance
Illustration
Randy Smith
In 167 BC, Syrian Antiochus Epiphanes conquered Jerusalem and desecrated the Temple by setting up pagan altars. The Jews revolted under the leadership of Judas Maccabaeus and recaptured the Temple. For eight days in 164 BC the Jews rededicated the Temple. They chose to commemorate this occasion by a yearly celebration lasting eight days entitled, "The Feast of Dedication." This festival is still celebrated by Jews today commonly referred to as "Hanukkah."
In the mind of the first century Jew, the Feast of Dedication was the last great deliverance they had known. No doubt this symbol of hope was a constant reminder as to how they presently longed for God to deliver them from their current "Roman" oppression. It was their continual prayer that God again would raise up a Judas Maccabaeus or better yet, the Messiah, who would bring freedom to the land.
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- Maharashtra: Collapse of Shivaji statue shakes up politics in the state
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- I'm a Catholic Sister. Project 2025 Does Not Reflect My Values.
